РОД

ГЛАВА XI

Множественное число существительных часто используется как вежливая форма. Вежливая форма множественного числа употребляется только в прямом или именительном падеже, при этом, форму множественного числа имеют только существительные на -¡ð.

Все окончания существительного в зависимости
от числа и падежа (прямого и косвенного)

ПРЯМОЙ КОСВЕННЫЙ

Ед. Мн. Ед. Мн.

1. М.р. – -¡ð: -¦, -¡ð÷ü
2. М.р. – остальные – нет

3. Ж.р. – -ý, -ýá и -Úðð: -¡ðû
4. Ж.р. – остальные: -¦û

Примечание:

В м.р. есть только одно изменение -¡ð на -¦.

Во мн.ч. все косвенные формы имеют -¡ð÷ü.

Есть ряд особенностей в употреблении конструкции числительное + существительное меры, веса и т.д.:

Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð «две чашки молока», ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð «три корзины манго», (ÑÚððâð÷ и ¾ð÷¨îÜ м.р. мн.ч., но Çð÷ ÑÚððâðó ÇõÏð, ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ýáüÏðÐð (а не ÑÚððòâðÚððû, ±ððòÀÿÚððû). Также Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð Ùð÷ü (а не....ÑÚððâðð÷ü ....), ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð çð÷ (а не ....¾ð÷¨îÜð÷ü....). Тем не менее, когда подчеркивается собирательный характер существительного, оно употребляется в единственном ч.: ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜð ¡ðÙð, Çð÷ ×ðó³ðð ¸ðÙðóÐð и т.д..

ГЛАВА XII

ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Øðõ®ð âð±ðó ` Рама почувствовал голод (себя голодным);
âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ ÑÚððçð âð±ðó «мальчик почувствовал жажду»;
Ùððû ¨îð÷ Çô:®ð èô¡ð «матери стало больно»;
òÑðÃðð ¨îð÷ ªîð÷Ïð ¡ðÚðð «отец разгневался»;

×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ çðÐÃðð÷æð èô¡ð «сестра испытала удовлетворение или почувствовала себя удовлетворенной»;
âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷ âð¸¸ðð ¡ðýá; «девочка устыдилась (почувствовала себя виноватой)»;
Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð÷ ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿð «слуга должен был уйти»;
âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷ ®ð÷âðÐðð µððòè¦ ` мальчикам следует поиграть»;
çðóÃðð ¨îð÷ü Ñðøüòçðâð µððòè¦ «Сите нужен карандаш»;

ãðè òÐðÏðáÐðÃðð ¨îð÷ ÑððÑð ÙððÐðÃðð èø «он расценивает (считает) бедность как грех»;
ò¨îÃðð×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ±ðÐÇð ÙðÃð ¨îÜð÷ «не пачкайте книги»;
ãðè Üççðó ¨îð÷ çððüÑð çðÙð»ðÃðð èø ` он принимает веревку за змею».

Существительные, обозначающие время, когда используются адвербиально:

äððÙð ¨îð÷ ¡ð¡ð÷ «приходите вечером»;
ÜðÙð Ççð ÃððÜó®ð ¨îð÷ ¡ðÚðð «Рама пришел десятого числа»;
Ùðøü çðð÷ÙðãððÜ ¨îð÷ ¸ðð¤û±ðð «Я уеду в понедельник»;
ãðè Çð÷ÑðèÜ ¨îð÷ ¡ðÃðð èø «Он приезжает в полдень»;
ãðè ÜðÃð ¨îð÷ ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃðð èø «он работает ночью».

Когда существительное, обозначающее время (кроме слов, обозначающих дни и даты), определяется некоторым другим словом, послелог ¨îð÷ может быть опущен (290-b):

¨îâð ÜðÃð (¨îð÷) ¨îð÷ýá ¡ðÚðð Æðð «кто-то прибыл вчера вечером»;
Но çðóÃðð Ðð÷ çðð÷ÙðãððÜ ¨îð÷ Ñðëð òâð®ðð «Сита написала письмо в понедельник»;
ãðè Ñððüµð ÃððÜó®ð ¨îð÷ ×ðóÙððÜ ÑðÀÿð «он заболел пятого числа»;

Косвенная форма существительного выражает различные отношения с помощью послелогов, которые также называются падежными окончаниями:

Ðð÷, ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü, ÑðÜ и ka. Например, âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ `мальчику` (âðÀÿ¨îð - мальчик), ³ðÜð÷ü Ùð÷ü `в домах` (³ðÜ - дом), äðèÜð÷ü çð÷ «из городов» (äðèÜ - город).

В единственном числе, однако, все существительные кроме слов мужского рода, заканчивающиеся на -¡ð, не изменяют свою форму перед послелогами:

ÜðÃð Ùð÷ü «ночью», äðèÜ çð÷ «из города», ³ðÜ ÑðÜ «дома, в доме».

Все другие существительные м.р. или ж.р. остаются неизменными в ед.ч.:

Øððýá ¨îð÷ «брату», ×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ «сестре» и т.д..

Косвенные формы образуются следующим образом:

В единственном числе только существительные м.р., заканчивающиеся на -¡ð, изменяют -¡ð на -¦, (таким же образом и с теми же самыми исключениями как и в случае прямого падежа множественного числа 80-b):

Существительные tatsama [69 (2)], заканчивающиеся на -¡ð, не изменяются: Üð¸ðð «царь или цари», òÑðÃðð «отец или отцы», Úðð÷Êð «воин или воины».

Существительные родства и имеющие повторную форму не изменяются: ÇðÇð «дедушка по отцовской линии» (-»), ÐððÐðð «дедушка со стороны матери» (-»), ¨îð¨îð или µððµðð «дядя со стороны отца» (-»), ÙððÙðð «дядя со стороны матери» (-»). Но ØðÃðó¸ðð «племянник», ×ð÷¾ð «сын» и Ñðð÷Ãðð «внук» и др., не имеющие повторной формы, изменяются как обычно: ØðÃðó¸ð÷ «племянники», ×ð÷¾÷ «сыны», Ñðð÷Ãð÷ «внуки» и т.д..

Еще несколько существительных также не изменяются во множественном числе:

¡±ðô¡ð «лидер, вождь» (-»); Ùðôò®ðÚðð «глава»; âððâðð «господин» (вежливое в некоторых кастах).

Все другие существительные м. и ж.р. остаютсянеизменными в единственном числе:

Øððýá ¨îð÷ «брату», ×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ «сестре» и т.д..

Во множественном числе все существительные м.р. и ж.р. имеют окончание -¡ð÷ü, перед которым может появляться призвук -Úð-. (существительные м.р. на -¡ð вроде âðÀÿ¨îð заменяют -¡ð на -¡ð÷ü):

äðò©ÃðÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ «способностям, силам»;

âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ «девочкам»;
ØððýÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ «братьям»;

×ðòèÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ «сестрам»;
×ðèô¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «невестам, невесткам или женам»,
âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷ «мальчикам»;

но Üð¸ðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «царям»;

òÑðÃðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «отцам».

ÐððÐðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «дедушкам по матери», µððµðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «дядьям по отцу», ÙððÙðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «дядьям по матери», а также Üð¸ðð âðð÷±ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ «царям».

-ý и -ýá (в таких словах как äðò©Ãð и âðÀÿ¨îó) заменяется на –ýÚðþ, а -¤ (в таких словах как ×ðèõ) укорачивается.

В косвенных формах, таким образом, есть только две модификации:

(1) В ед.ч. м.р.: -¡ð меняется на -¦.
(2) Во мн.ч. все остальные существительные имеют -¡ð÷ü.

Изменения существительных ед. и мн. ч.
в косвенном падеже

Прямой Косвенный

Ед. Мн.

1. М.р. на -¡ð -- ¦ -¦ - ¡ð÷ü
2. М.р. (все остальные) -- -- --

3. Ж.р. на -ý, -ýá и -Úðð -- ¡ðû --

4. Ж.р. (все остальные) -- ¦û- --

Следует отметить, что в ед.ч. в косвенном падеже есть только одно изменение -¡ð на -¦ в м.р.. Во мн.ч. все существительные в косвенном падеже имеют окончание -¡ð÷ü.

Также окончание -¡ð÷üпоявляется в прямом падеже во мн.ч. у существительных ж.р. на -ý, -ýá и –Úðð. Все остальные существительных ж.р. оканчиваются на -¦û. Однако, есть исключение: в параграфе 83 приводится случай, когда -¡ð÷ü образует прямой падеж во мн. ч..

ГЛАВА XIV

Прямой падеж (то есть немодифицированная словарная форма существительного без окончаний) используется для обозначения следующих грамматических отношений:

Подлежащее (рассмотрению) при лаголе:

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÃðð èø «мальчик приходит, приезжает»;
âðÀÿ¨÷üî ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿÃð÷ èøü «мальчики читают книгу»;
³ðð÷Àÿð ÇðøÀÿð «лошадь бежала»;
±ððÚð÷ü µðÜÃðó èøü «коровы жуют»;
ÑðÄðð ò±ðÜ÷±ðð «лист упадет»;
âðÀÿò¨îÚððû ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿ÷ü±ðó «девочки прочитают книгу».
Исключения:

С прошедшим причастием переходного глагола (57), подлежащее имеет косвенную форму с послелогом Ðð÷:

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «мальчик прочитал книгу».

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ððÚðð «мальчик съел фрукты»;
ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «Рама прочел книгу»;
±ððÚðð÷ü Ðð÷ ÇõÏð òÇÚðð «коровы дали молоко»;
³ðð÷Àð÷ü Ðð÷ ±ððÀÿó ®ðóüµðó «лошади тянули воз»;
Øððýá Ðð÷ Ñðëð òâð®ðð èø «брат написал письмо»;
âðÀÿ¨îó Ðð÷ ®ððÐðð ×ðÐððÚðð Æðð «девочка приготовила пищу»;

Но подлежащее при непереходном глаголе в прошедшем времени имеет прямую форму:

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð «мальчик пришел»;
³ðð÷Àÿð ÇðøÀÿð «лошадь побежала»;
±ððÚð÷ü ±ðÚðóü «коровы ушли».

Исключения:

a) Несколько переходных глаголов, таких как âððÐðð «приносить», ØðõâðÐðð «забывать», ×ðð÷âðÐðð «говорить», не употребляются с Ðð÷; в то время как с глаголами çðÙð»ðÐðð «понимать» и ×ð¨îÐðð «болтать» употребление Ðð÷ возможно.

âðÀÿ¨îð ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð «мальчик принес книгу»;
×ðòèÐð÷ü Òîâð âððÚðóü «сестры принесли фрукты»;
ãðè ×ðð÷âðð «он сказал»;
Ùðøü çðÙð»ðð «I understood»;
ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ðÑð¨îó ×ððÃð Ððèóü çðÙð»ðó «Я не понял то, что Вы сказали».

(b) Существительное в роли именной части сказуемого: cлово «отсутствующие» в предложении «мои друзья являются отсутствующими» и «мальчик» в предложении «он – мальчик» – это именные части сказуемого.

ÜðÙð âðÀÿ¨îð èø «Рама – мальчик»;
±ðü±ðð ¡ðøÜ ÚðÙðôÐðð ÐðòÇÚððû èøü «Ганга и Ямуна – реки»;
ãð÷ ×ðµµð÷ èøü «они – дети»;
×ðÒáî ÑððÐðó ×ðÐð ¸ðð¦±ðó «Лед станет (превратится) в воду».

(c) Как правило, неодушевленный объект глагола:

ÜðÙð Òîâð ®ððÃðð èø «Рама ест фрукты»;
Ïðð÷×ðó ¨îÑðÀÿ÷ Ïðð÷Ãðð èø «Прачка стирает одежду»;
ãðè ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü âðð¦±ðð «Он принесет книги»;
Ðððø¨îÜ ÝÑðÚðð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø «Слуга просит денег»;
ãðè ÑððÐðó òÑð¦±ðð «Он попьет воды».

[ Мы имеем в этих примерах признание среднего ("неодушевленного") рода, который, иначе, был бы совсем потерян в языке хинди. В санскрите формы существительных субъекта и объекта среднего рода идентичны.

Кроме того, одушевленный объект глагола, если он указывает на некое существо без каких-либо уточнений. (Конкретный одушевленный объект см. 94 (d)].

âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷ «Позовите мальчика»;
Ùðøü ¡ðÇÙðó ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðÃðð èõû «Я вижу мужчину»;
ãðè âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷ ÁüõÁ÷±ðð «Он поищет девочку»;
ÜðÙð çðóÃðð ¨îð÷ ®ðð÷¸ðÃð÷ Æð÷ «Рама искал Ситу»;
But - Çð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü ®ðÜóÇð÷ «Купи две книги» (Неодушевленный объект);
âðÀÿ¨îð ÑðÃÆðÜ Ò÷üî¨îÃðð èø «Мальчик бросает камни» (Неодушевленный объект);

Ùðøü Ðððø¨îÜ ®ðð÷¸ðÃðð èõû «Я ищу (какого-нибудь) слугу» (не конкретного слугу).

Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷ «Позовите слугу»;

£çðÐð÷ äð÷Ü Ððèóü Ç÷®ðð «Он никогда не видел льва»;
но £çðÐð÷ äð÷Ü ¨îð÷ Ððèóü Ç÷®ðð «Он не видел (этого) льва».

Любое прямое дополнение (одушевленное или неодушевленное). Некоторые глаголы имеют два дополнения: так, в предложении «Я дал ему две книги» слово «книги» является прямым дополнением, а «ему» – косвенным. (В большинстве таких случаев, прямое дополнение отвечает на вопрос «что, кого?», а косвенное – «кому, чему?»)

ÙðøÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ³ðð÷Àÿð òÇÚðð «Я дал Раме лошадь»;
Ùððù Ùðô»ð÷ Çð÷ Òîâð Ç÷ü±ðó «Мать даст мне два плода»;
Øð±ðãððÐð £çð÷ ¦¨î âðÀÿ¨îð Ç÷ «Да дарует ему Бог сына!»;
ãðè Ùðô»ð çð÷ ¦¨î ÝÑðÚðð Ùððû±ðÃðð èø «Он просит у меня рупию».

Предикативное существительное, определяющее дополнение:

ÑðòêðÚðð÷ü Ðð÷ èüçð ¨îð÷ Üð¸ðð µðôÐðð «Птицы выбрали лебедя своим царем»;
ÙðøÐð÷ £çð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð òÙðëð ×ðÐððÚðð «Я сделал его своим другом»;
çðóÃðð £çð÷ Øððýá ÙððÐðÃðó èø «Сита считает его своим братом»;
Ùðøü £çð÷ òÙðëð çðÙð»ðÃðð Æðð «Я считал его другом»;
ÙðøÐð÷ Üççðó ¨îð÷ çððüÑð çðÙð»ðð «Я принял веревку за змею».

CHAPTER XV

Послелоги или падежные окончания

Как отмечалось выше (88), косвенная форма существительного выражает грамматические отношения с помощью «падежных окончаний» Ðð÷, ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü, ÑðÜ и ¨îð. Они всегда помещаются после склоняемого существительного или местоимения. Их можно, поэтому, назвать «послелогами», в отличие от предлогов, которые помещаются перед существительным или местоимением.

Примечание: Падежные окончания всегда пишутся отдельно от существительного (как, например,

ÜðÙð Ðð÷, çðóÃðð ¨îð÷ и т.д.) но слитно с местоимениями (ÙðøÐð÷, £çð¨îð÷, ò¨îçð¨îð, ÃðôÙðçð÷, ò¸ðçðÙð÷ü и т.д.).

Ðð÷ соответствует окончанию творительного падежа, а существительное с ним называет деятеля, т.е. того, кто осуществил действие над каким либо объектом (действие в прошедшем времени передается прошедшим или страдательным причастием):

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ððÚðð «Мальчик съел плод» (букв. Плод съеден мальчиком);
ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «Рама прочел книгу» (букв. Книга прочтена Рамой);
±ððÚðð÷ü Ðð÷ ÇõÏð òÇÚðð «Коровы дали молоко» (букв. Молоко дано коровами);
³ðð÷Àð÷ü Ðð÷ ±ððÀÿó ®ðóüµðó «Лошади тянули воз» (букв. Повозка влеклась лошадьми);
Øððýá Ðð÷ Ñðëð òâð®ðð èø «Брат написал письмо» (букв. Письмо написано братом);
âðÀÿ¨îó Ðð÷ ®ððÐðð ×ðÐððÚðð Æðð «Девочка приготовила пищу» (букв. Пища приготовлена девочкой);

Но подлежащее при непереходном глаголе в прошедшем времени имеет прямую форму:

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð «Мальчик пришел»;
³ðð÷Àÿð ÇðøÀÿð «Лошадь побежала»;
±ððÚð÷ü ±ðÚðóü «Коровы ушли».

Исключения:

Несколько переходных глаголов, таких как âððÐðð «приносить», ØðõâðÐðð «забывать», ×ðð÷âðÐðð «говорить», не допускают употребления подлежащего с Ðð÷; в то время как çðÙð»ðÐðð «понимать» и ×ð¨îÐðð «болтать» употребляются с и без Ðð.

Корни âðð «приносить», Øðõâð «забывать», çðÙð»ð «понимать», ×ð¨î «болтать», ×ðð÷âð «молвить, говорить», âðÀÿ «бороться», ÀÜ «бояться», òÙðâð «встречать» образуют субъектную конструкцию в прошедшем времени несмотря на то, что являются переходными. Тем не менее, âðð «приносить», фактически, состоит из

âð÷ «брать» + ¡ð «приходить»; а так как ¡ð непереходный глагол, он определяет характер конструкции âðð. Предложение вроде ãðè ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð может интерпретироваться как ãðè ò¨îÃðð×ð âð÷ (¨îÜ) ¡ðÚðð «Он пришел, взявши книгу».

Важно помнить, что, переходным или непереходным является главный корень, составной глагол допускает объектную конструкцию (с причастием прошедшего времени) только в том случае, если вспомогательный глагол переходен. Таким образом:

Ùðøü Ðð÷ µððÚð Ñðó «Я пил чай» (объектная конструкция);
ÙðøüÐð÷ µððÚð Ñðó âðó ` Я только что попил чаю» (объектная конструкция, т.к. âðó – переходный глагол).

Но, Ùðøü µððÚð Ñðó µðô¨îð «Я закончил пить чай» (субъектная конструкция, т.к. µðô¨îð – непереходный глагол).

Главный глагол: корень (абсолютивная форма).

В составных глаголах этого класса главный глагол имеет абсолютивную форму без ¨îÜ (243), которая тождественна его корню и является неизменной. Вспомогательными глаголами, обычно используемыми, являются следующие:

(a) Øðõâð «забывать» – обычно используется в сочетании с ¸ðð «идти», который является непереходным и, поэтому, придает конструкции субъектный характер: конструкция ÜðÙð Úðè ×ððÃð Øðõâð ±ðÚðð «Рама это (дело) забыл» намного чаще встречается, чем ÜðÙð Úðè ×ððÃð Øðõâðð. ÜðÙð Øðõâðð или Ùðøü Øðõâðð, фактически, означает «Рама допускал ошибку» или «я допускал ошибку», где Øðõâðð – непереходный глагол. Важно помнить, что, переходен ли главный корень или непереходен, составной глагол допускает объективную конструкцию (с причастием прошедшего времени) только в том случае, если вспомогательный глагол является переходным. Таким образом:
Ùðøü Ðð÷ µððÚð Ñðó «Я попил чаю» (объектная конструкция),
ÙðøüÐð÷ µððÚð Ñðó âðó «Я только что попил чаю» (объектная конструкция, потому что âðó – является непереходным глаголом). Но, Ùðøü µððÚð Ñðó µðô¨îð «Я закончил пить чай» (субъективная конструкция, т.к. µðô¨îð – непереходный глагол).

×ð¨î и ×ðð÷âð используются и как переходные и как непереходные глаголы. В предложении ãðè ×ð¨îð «он болтал» ×ð¨î является непереходным, а в £çðÐð÷ ×ðèôÃð ¨ôî¶ ×ð¨îð «он наговорил много глупостей (много ерунды)» – переходным. В предложении «ãðè ×ðð÷âðð» глагол ×ðð÷âð – непереходный. В предложении £çðÐð÷ »ðõ¿ ×ðð÷âðð «он сказал ложь» ×ðð÷âð – переходный глагол. Однако, »ðõ¿ ×ðð÷âðð является также распространенным выражением.

çðÙð»ð входит в обе конструкции: Ùðøü çðÙð»ðð, ÙðøüÐð÷ çðÙð»ðð «Я подумал» или «Я понял».

ÀÜ, âðÀÿ ÿ и òÙðâð считают непереходными глаголами. «Дополнения» при этих глаголах употребляются с послелогом çð÷, который имеет значение предлога «от» или «(вместе) с»:

âðÀÿ, однако, является переходным с родственным объектом (165-c): £çðÐð÷ ¨îýá âðÀÿðýÚððü âðÀÿóü «Он сразился в нескольких сражениях». Опускание Ðð÷ в вышеупомянутых глаголах может частично происходить из-за влияния диалекта.

âðÀÿ¨îð ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð «Мальчик принес книгу»;
×ðòèÐð÷ü Òîâð âððÚðóü «Сестры принесли фрукты»;
ãðè ×ðð÷âðð «Он сказал»;
Ùðøü çðÙð»ðð «Я понял»;
ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ðÑð¨îó ×ððÃð Ððèóü çðÙð»ðó «Я не понимал то, что Вы сказали».

(a) Причастие прошедшего времени сформировано, прилагая ¡ð к корню:

(b) Однако, в корнях, заканчивающихся на -¤ и -ýá эти гласные перед -¡ð укорачиваются, а в случае с корнями на -ýá вставляется призвук -Úð между корнем и ¡ð. Таким образом,

(c) -Úð вставляется и в случае корней, заканчивающихся на -¡ð, -¦ или -¡ð÷. Таким образом,

(d) Исключения

¨îð÷

¨îð÷ используется для обозначения дательного падежа:

ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Øðõ®ð âð±ðó «Рама почувствовал голод (букв. Раме почувствовался голод);
âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ ÑÚððçð âð±ðó «Мальчик почувствовал жажду» (букв. «Мальчику почувствовалась жажда»);
Ùððû ¨îð÷ Çô:®ð èô¡ð «Матери стало больно»;
òÑðÃðð ¨îð÷ ªîð÷Ïð ¡ðÚðð «Отец разгневался» (букв. К отцу пришел гнев);

×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ çðÐÃðð÷æð èô¡ð Сестра почувствовала удовлетворение» (букв. Сестре было удовлетворение);
âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷ âð¸¸ðð ¡ðýá; «Девочка устыдилась» (букв. К девочке пришел стыд);
Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð÷ ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿð «Слуге пришлось пойти»;
âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷ ®ð÷âðÐðð µððòè¦ «Мальчикам нужно поиграть»;
çðóÃðð ¨îð÷ü Ñðøüòçðâð µððòè¦ «Сите нужен карандаш»;
ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ¸ððÐðð èø «Раме нужно уходить»;
Ùðð÷èÐð ¨îð÷ ×ðèôÃð ¨îðÙð èø «Мохану предстоит много работы»;
Ùðð÷èÐð ¨îð÷ ÑðÃðð èø «Мохану известно»;
ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Úðè ¡òÏð¨îðÜ èø «Раме принадлежит это право»;

âðÀÿ¨÷ ¨îð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð òÙðëð òÙðâðð «Мальчику повстречался его друг»

Но âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐð÷ òÙðëð çð÷ òÙðâðð «Мальчик встретился со своим другом».

ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ÇÂÀ òÙðâðð «Раме досталось наказание» (Рама был наказан);
Следует заметить, что ÑðÁÿó в первом предложении стоит в ж.р. ед.ч., согласуясь с дополнением ò¨îÃðð×ð. Подлежащее ÜðÙð (м.р.ед.ч.) не согласуется с глаголом. ®ððÚðð, Ãðð÷Àÿ÷ и Ñðó в других трех предложениях точно так же согласуются с дополнениями ®ððÐðð (м.р. ед.ч.) Òîâð (м.р. мн.ч.), и µððÚð (ж.р.ед.ч.).

âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷ µðð÷¾ ¡ðýá «Девочке достался ушиб» (Девочка ушиблась);
âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Òîâð ¡µ¶ð âð±ðð «Мальчику плод понравился»;
Øððýá ¨îð÷ ×ðôÜð âð±ðð «Брату это не понравилось»;
âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷ ×ðô®ððÜ èø «У девочки температура»;
âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ ÚððÇ Ððèóü èø «Мальчик не помнит» (букв. Мальчику не помнится);
¡ðÇÙðó ¨îð÷ èð÷äð Ððèóü èø «У мужчины отсутствует сознание».

èð÷Ððð, ¡ðÐðð, âð±ðÐðð и ÜèÐðð формируют непереходные сложные глаголы с пассивным (страдательным) значением, хотя по форме выглядят активными глаголами действительного залога. Действие, состояние и т.д., обозначенное ими, предстает как испытанное, перенесенное, обладаемое, чувствуемое и т.д. или случающееся с дополнением, стоящим в косвенном падеже с послелогом ¨îð÷ или окончанием -¦.

Независимо от того, что субъект переносит или испытывает, независимо от того, что случается с ним, процесс предстает как имеющий место сам по себе, а не как производимый кем-то. То, что испытавается, стоит в прямом падеже, а глагол согласуется с этим существительным.

(a) ÑðÀÿÐðð и èð÷Ððð в сочетании с инфинитивом обозначают «потребность, обязательство, требование» и т.д.

ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿð «Раме пришлось уйти»;
Ùðô»ð÷ ×ðü×ðýá ¸ððÐðð èð÷±ðð «Мне предстоит поехать в Бомбей».
Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð÷ ×ðð¸ððÜ ¸ððÐðð Æðð «Слуге нужно было идти на базар».
Инфинитивы здесь используются как абстрактные существительные.

Однако, когда инфинитив является переходным глаголом, то он используется как прилагательное к своему дополнению и изменяет свое окончание -Ððð на -Ððó или –ne, в зависимости от рода дополнения. Вспомогательные глаголы также согласуются с дополнением в числе и роде.

âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿ÷±ðó «Мальчику придется выпить лекарство».
Ùðô»ð÷ ÃðóÐð Ñðëð òâð®ðÐð÷ Æð÷ «Мне нужно было написать три письма».

Заметьте ! Неправильно выражаться так: ×ðµµð÷ ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿó или Ùðô»ð÷ ÃðóÐð Ñðëð òâð®ðÐðð Æðð, как частенько можно слышать по аналогии с непереходными инфинитивами (¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿ÷±ðð, ¸ððÐðð Æðð и т.д.).

µððòè¦ «нужно» или «надо» сочетается с уществительным или инфинитивом. Дополнение в дательном падеже оканчивается на ¨îð÷ или -¦:

ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü µððòè¦ «Раме нужны книги»;

ÃðôÙè÷ü ©Úðð µððòè¦ «Что тебе нужно?»
¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ¸ððÐðð µððòè¦ «Вам надо пойти» (инфинитив в роли существительного);
¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü ÑðÁÿÐðó µððòè¦ «Вам надо прочесть книги» (инфинитив в роли прилагательного);

Одушевленный предмет, обозначающий конкретное существо:

âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷ «Позови мальчика!»
Ùðøü ¡ðÇÙðó ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðÃðð èõû « Я вижу человека»;
ãðè âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷ ÁüõÁ÷±ðð «Он будет искать девочку»;
ÜðÙð çðóÃðð ¨îð÷ ®ðð÷¸ðÃð÷ Æð÷ «Рама искал Ситу».

Но: Çð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü ®ðÜóÇð÷ «Купи две книги» (неодушевленные предметы);
âðÀÿ¨îð ÑðÃÆðÜ Ò÷üî¨îÃðð èø «Мальчик бросает камни» (неодушевленные предметы);

Ùðøü Ðððø¨îÜ ®ðð÷¸ðÃðð èõû «Я ищу слугу» (но не конкретного).

Дополнение в нейтральной конструкции

ÜðÙð Ðð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð «Рама увидел мальчика»,
Øððýá Ðð÷ ×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð «Брат позвал сестру»;
ÑðÃÆðÜð÷ü ¨îð÷ Ò÷üî¨î òÇÚðð ±ðÚðð «Камни были выброшены»;
ýÐð Ùð¨îðÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ò±ðÜð òÇÚðð ¸ð𦠫Пусть эти здания будут уничтожены».

Прямое дополнение (обычно неодушевленное):

Ùððü âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Òîâð Ç÷Ãðó èø «Мать дает фрукты мальчику»;
ÜðÙð Ðð÷ äÚððÙð ¨îð÷ Ñðëð òâð®ðð «Рама написал письмо Шьяму»;
³ðð÷Àÿ÷ ¨îð÷ µððÜð Çð÷ «Дай корм лошади».

Дополнение при глаголе, требующем предикативного слова (связанного по смыслу с дополнением):

ãðè òÐðÏðáÐðÃðð ¨îð÷ ÑððÑð ÙððÐðÃðð èø «Он считает бедность грехом»;
ò¨îÃðð×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ±ðÐÇð ÙðÃð ¨îÜð÷ «Не пачкай книги»;
ãðè Üççðó ¨îð÷ çððüÑð çðÙð»ðÃðð èø «Он принимает веревку за змею».

Существительные, обозначающие время, когда они используются адвербиально:

äððÙð ¨îð÷ ¡ð¡ð÷ «Приходи вечером»;
ÜðÙð Ççð ÃððÜó®ð ¨îð÷ ¡ðÚðð «Рама приехал десятого числа»;
Ùðøü çðð÷ÙðãððÜ ¨îð÷ ¸ðð¤û±ðð «Я уеду в понедельник»;
ãðè Çð÷ÑðèÜ ¨îð÷ ¡ðÃðð èø «Он приходит в полдень»;
ãðè ÜðÃð ¨îð÷ ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃðð èø «Он работает ночью».

Когда существительное, обозначающее время, определяется некоторым другим словом, ¨îð÷ может быть опущен, кроме случаев, когда он употребляется со словами, обозначающими дни и даты:

¨îâð ÜðÃð (¨îð÷) ¨îð÷ýá ¡ðÚðð Æðð «Кто-то прибыл вчера вечером»;
Но: çðóÃðð Ðð÷ çðð÷ÙðãððÜ ¨îð÷ Ñðëð òâð®ðð «Сита написала письмо в понедельник»;
ãðè Ñððüµð ÃððÜó®ð ¨îð÷ ×ðóÙððÜ ÑðÀÿð «Он заболел пятого числа».

Употребление ¨îð÷.

Местоимение, указывающее на человека, когда используется как дополнение всегда требует ¨ ð÷ или его эквиваленты -¦ или -èøü. Мы можем сказать ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ãðè âðÀÿ¨îð Ç÷®ðð (объектная конструкция) или ÜðÙð Ðð÷ £çð âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð (нейтральная конструкция). Но мы не можем сказать ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ãðè Ç÷®ðð. Когда ãðè относится к âðÀÿ¨îð и т.д., мы должны сказать ÜðÙð Ðð÷ £çð÷ (£çð¨îð÷) Ç÷®ðð. Это происходит вследствие того, что £çð÷ или £çð¨îð÷ указывает на конкретного человека. Следовательно, выражение ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ãðè âðÀÿ¨îð Ç÷®ðð является небрежным.

(b) Выражения ÑðÃÆðÜð÷ü ¨îð÷ Ò÷üî¨î òÇÚðð ±ðÚðð, Ùð¨îðÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ò±ðÜð òÇÚðð ¸ðð¦ и т.д. являются формальными, хотя и часто встречаются. Неодушевленные предметы должны использоваться без ¨îð÷ (ÑðÃÆðÜ Ò÷îü¨î òǦ ±ð¦, Ùð¨îðÐð ò±ðÜð òǦ ¸ðð¦û) за исключением переходных глаголов с неполной предикацией вроде ÑðÃÆðÜð÷ü ¨îð÷ èóÜð ×ðÐðð òÇÚðð ±ðÚðð, Ùð¨îðÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ »ðð÷üÑðòÀÿÚðð ÙððÐð òâðÚðð ±ðÚðð.

(a) ¨îð÷ (-¦, -è÷ü) обычно указывает на адресат поздравления, уважения, приветствия, благодарности, осуждения и т.д. (с или без глагола, требующего двух дополнений).

±ðôÞ ¨îð÷ ÑßÂððÙð – поклон наставнику!

¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ×ðÏððýá – поздравление Вам!

ýáäãðÜ ¨îð÷ ÏðÐÚðãððÇ – благодарение богу!

òÏð©¨îðÜ èø ÃðôÙè÷ü – порицание (проклятие) тебе!

(b) ¨îð÷ (-¦, -è÷ü) указывает на человека, испытывающего беспокойство, несущего потери и т.д.

ÃðôÙè÷ü ýçðçð÷ ©Úðð ÙðÃðâð×ð? – А тебе какое дело до этого (а тебе что от этого)?

¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ©Úðð ÑðÀÿó èø? Почему Вы беспокоитесь (что на Вас нашло)?

ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ âððØð èô¡ð (èðòÐð èôý)á – Рама оказался в выигрыше (в проигрыше) – букв. Раме была удача (неудача).

çð÷

çð÷ сосответствует окончанию творительного падежа и используется для обозначения деятеля при безличном глаголе или глаголе в страдетельном залоге (171):

ÜðÙð çð÷ Ñðëð Ððèóü òâð®ðð ¸ððÃðð – Рама неспособен написать письмо (письмо не пишется Рамой).

âðÀÿ¨÷î çð÷ ÇðøÀÿð Ððèóü ±ðÚðð – Мальчик не мог бежать (букв. мальчиком не бежалось).

Косвенные дополнения (которые обычно обозначают людей) глаголов, означающих «сказать, говорить, просить, требовать, вопрошать»:

Øððýá Ðð÷ ÜðÙð çð÷ ¨îèð ò¨î... – Брат сказал Раме, что...
¨îðÐÃðð Ðð÷ Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð... – Канта сказал матери, что...
ÙðøüÐð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î çð÷ Ñðô¶ð... – Я спросил мальчика...
Ðððø¨îÜ Ùðô»ðçð÷ ÝÑðÚðð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø... – Слуга просит у меня рупию.

Средство, инструмент или деятеля:

ÃððÜ çð÷ çðÙððµððÜ Çð÷ – пошлите новости телеграммой!
ãðè Ü÷üâð çð÷ çðÒîÜ Ððèóü ¨îÜÃðð – Он не путешествует поездом.
µðð¨õî çð÷ Òîâð ¨îð¾ð÷ – Разрежьте фрукты ножом!
Ùðøü Ñðøüòçðâð çð÷ òâð®ðÃðð èõû – Я пишу карандашом.
Úðè ¨îðÙð Ðððø¨îÜ çð÷ ¨îÜð¡ð÷ – Прикажите, чтобы эта работа была сделана слугою.

(c) Это правило, однако, применимо только к таким каузальным глаголам, которые обозначают реальную деятельность со стороны субъекта, а не просто каузальность (побуждение к совершению чего-либо). Там, где выражается просто побуждение к действию, косвенное дополнение, обозначающее исполнителя (деятеля), стоит в косвенном падеже с послелогом çð÷:

В случае глагола типа (b) оригинальный субъект и объект остаются тем, чем они были в первом каузале, а именно, вторичным объектом и первичным объектом, в то время как субъект первого каузального глагола имеет послелог çð÷:

Образ действия:

ÏÚððÐð çð÷ çðôÐðð÷ Слушайте со вниманием (внимательно!).
ÃðôÙð çðÜâðÃðð çð÷ ÑðÁÿ âðð÷±ð÷ Ты будешь читать (это) с непринужденностью (легко).

ãðè ¨îò¿ÐðÃðð çð÷ ¡ð ÑððÚðð Он смог приехать с некоторыми трудностями.

Причина, происхождение:

ÏðõÑð çð÷ ÑðÄð÷ çðõ®ÿð ±ðÚð÷ Листья усохли от солнечного тепла.
ãðè èø¸ð÷ çð÷ ÙðÜð Он умер от холеры.
âðÀÿ¨îð ¨ôîÄð÷ çð÷ ÀÜÃðð èø Мальчик боится собаки.
Çèó ÇõÏð çð÷ ×ðÐðÃðð èø Творог делается из молока.

Ассоциация, антагонизм:

Ùðð÷èÐð Ùðô»ðçð÷ òÙðâðð Мохан встретился со мной.
[But Ùðð÷èÐð Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ òÙðâðð Мне повстречался Мохан.
Øððýá çð÷ ÙðÃð âðÀÿÿð÷ Не дерись с братом!
ÜðãðÂð ÜðÙð çð÷ âðÀÿð Равана сразился с Рамой. çð÷ указывает на причину в предложении ×ðµµðð ¨ôîÄð÷ çð÷ ÀÜÃðð èø (Ребенок боится собаки) и ассоциацию в предложении ÜðãðÂð ÜðÙð çð÷ âðÀÿð или Ùðð÷èÐð Ùðô»ðçð÷ òÙðâðð. ¨ôîÄðð, ÜðÙð и Ùðøü в этих предложениях являются косвенными дополнениями.

Разделение или отделение:

Ñð÷Àÿ çð÷ ÑðÄðð ò±ðÜð Лист упал с дерева.

Çôæ¾ð÷ü çð÷ ×ðµðð÷ Держись подальше от грешников!
ãðè äðèÜ çð÷ µðâðð ±ðÚðð Он ушел из города.

Отправная точка (места или времени):

ÐðÇó äðèÜ çð÷ ÇõÜ èø Река далеко от города.
ÜðÙð ¨îâð çð÷ ×ðóÙððÜ èø Рама болен со вчерашнего дня.

Длительность действия (в отношении настоящего или прошлого): ãðè µððÜ çððâð çð÷ Úðèðû èø Он здесь четыре года.

ÙðøüÐð÷ Çð÷ òÇÐð çð÷ ¨ôî¶ Ððèóü ®ððÚðð Æðð Я не ел ничто два дня.

Различие или сравнение между двумя человеками или предметами

Úðè çÚððèó £çðçð÷ ¡âð±ð èø Эти чернила отличаются от этих.

ÜðÙð Ùðð÷èÐð çð÷ ×ðÀÿð èø Рама старше Мохана.

Косвенные дополнения (которые являются обычно людьми) глаголов, означающих «сказать», «говорить», «просить», «выпрашивать», «требовать», «запрашивать»:

Øððýá Ðð÷ ÜðÙð çð÷ ¨îèð ò¨î... Брат сказал Раме, что...
¨îðÐÃðð Ðð÷ Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð ... Канта сказал матери...
ÙðøüÐð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î çð÷ Ñðô¶ð... Я спросил мальчика...
Ðððø¨îÜ Ùðô»ðçð÷ ÝÑðÚðð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø... Слуга просит у меня рупию…

ÜðÙð çð÷ ¶ð÷¾ð Моложе чем Рама.
çð×ð çð÷ £ûµðð Выше всех.
Úðè Òîâð £çðçð÷ ¡µ¶ð èø Этот плод лучше, чем тот.
ãðè çð×ðçð÷ ¶ð÷¾ð èø Он меньше всех.

Ùð÷ü

Ùð÷ü используется для обозначения:

(a) Местоположение или присутствие (чего-нибудь) в или в пределах чего-нибудь:

Ùð÷Üð ³ðÜ äðèÜ Ùð÷ü èø Мой дом находится в городе.

Ùððû ³ðÜ Ùð÷ü èø Мать находится в доме.
ãðè òãðÌððâðÚð Ùð÷ü ÑðÁÿÃðð èø Он учится в школе.

µððÚð Ùð÷ü äð©¨îÜ Ððèóü èø В чае нет сахара.
ÑðôçÃð¨î Ùð÷ü Ãðóçð Ñðð¿ èøü В книге тридцать уроков.

Длительность:

Úðè ò¨îÃðð×ð ÙðøüÐð÷ ÃðóÐð òÇÐð Ùð÷ü ÑðÁÿó Я прочитал эту книгу за три дня.
Ùð¨îðÐ𠦨î çððâð Ùð÷ü ÃðøÚððÜ èô¡ð – Дом был построен за один год.

Цена:

Ñðøüòçðâð ÃðóÐð ¡ðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ¡ðÃðó èø – Карандаш стоит три аны;
Úðè ò¨îÃðð×ð Çð÷ ÝÑðÚð÷ Ùð÷ü òÙðâðó – Эта книга куплена (досталась за) две рупии.
ÙðøüÐð÷ Úðè ¨îÑðÀÿð Ñððüµð ÝÑðÚð÷ Ùð÷ü òâðÚðð – Я купил эту ткань за пять рупий.
(d) Сравнение или различие с большим, чем два, количеством:

ýÐð âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü Ùð÷ü ÜðÙð çð×ðçð÷ ¡µ¶ð èø – Рама является лучшим из этих мальчиков.

¡ðÇÿÙðó ¡ðÇÿÙðó Ùð÷ü ¡ÐÃðÜ èø – Есть различие между человеком и человеком.

ÑðÜ

ÑðÜ обозначает местоположение или положение на или на поверхности чего-либо:

ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùð÷ºð ÑðÜ èø – Книга находится на столе.
Ñð÷Àÿ ÑðÜ Òîâð èøü – На дереве есть фрукты.
Ùð÷Üð ³ðÜ ¤ûµððýá ÑðÜ èø – Мой дом (расположен) на высоте.
ãðè ÇÜãðð¸ð÷ ÑðÜ ®ðÀÿð èø – Он стоит в двери (на пороге).
äððÐÃðð ¶Ãð ÑðÜ èø – Шанта находится на крыше.
¨ôî¶ ÇõÜó ÑðÜ – На некотором расстоянии.

Úðèðû çð÷ ¦¨î Ùðóâð ÑðÜ – На расстоянии одной мили отсюда.

Момент времени, в который происходит действие:

Ùðøü ¿ó¨î çðÙðÚð ÑðÜ Ñðèôüµðð – Я прибыл в нужное время.

Ü÷âð Çð÷ ×ð¸ð¨îÜ Ççð òÙðÐð¾ ÑðÜ ¡ðÃðó èø – Поезд прибывает в два часа десять минут.

Последовательность действий или событий:

ãðèðû ¸ððÐð÷ ÑðÜ ÙðøüÐð÷ Ç÷®ðð ... – Придя туда, я увидел...
çðØððÑðòÃð ¨÷î ¡ðÐð÷ ÑðÜ çð×ð ®ðÀÿ÷ èð÷ ±ðÚð÷ – По прибытии президента все встали.

Причина или повод:

ãðè µðð÷Üó ¨îÜÐð÷ ÑðÜ òÐð¨îðâðð ±ðÚðð – Он был уволен по совершении кражи (за то, что совершил кражу).

(e) Дополнения (составных) глаголов, обозначающих милосердие, веру, уверенность, гнев и т.д.:

¸ðóãðð÷ü ÑðÜ ÇÚðð ¨îÜð÷ – Будь милосерден к животным.
ýáäãðÜ ÑðÜ òãðäãððçð ¨îÜð÷ – Верь в Бога.
ãðè Ðððø¨îÜð÷ü ÑðÜ ªîð÷Ïð ¨îÜÃðð èø – Он гневается на служащих

¨îð

¨îð является послелогом родительного падежа. Если определяемое существительное, которое следует за ним, женского рода (ед. или мн. ч.), ¨îð изменяется на ¨îó; если же мужского рода и множественного числа, то ¨îð изменяется на ¨ ÷.

Владение и отношения принадлежности:

ÜðÙð ¨îð Øððýá – Брат Рамы.
ÜðÙð ¨îó ×ðòèÐð (or ×ðòèÐð÷ü) – Сестра (сестры) Рамы.
ÜðÙð ¨îó ×ðòèÐð (or ×ðòèÐðð÷ü) Ðð÷ ®ððÐðð ×ðÐððÚðð – Сестра (сестры) Рамы приготовили еду.
ÜðÙð ¨÷î Øððýá – Братья Рамы.
ÜðÙð ¨÷î Øððýá (or ØððýÚðð÷ü) Ðð÷ ¨îèð – Брат (-ья) Рамы сказали.

Материал или состав:

çðð÷Ðð÷ ¨îð ¨îÀÿð – Браслет из золота.

ÑðÃÆðÜ ¨÷î Ùð¨îðÐð – Дом из камня.
òçëðÚðð÷ü ¨îó çðØðð – Собрание женщин.
¨îð±ð¸ð ¨îó Ðððãð – Лодка из бумаги.

Ценность и мера (место или время):

¦¨î ÝÑðÚð÷ ¨îó äð©¨îÜ – Сахар по цене рупия.
µððÜ ¡ðÐð÷ ¨÷î Òîâð – Фрукты, стоящие четыре анны.
¦¨î Ùðóâð ¨îó ÇõÜó – Расстояние в одну милю;
Çð÷ ±ð¸ð ¨îó µððÇÜ – Простыня в два ярда.
Ñððûµð ãðæðá ¨îð âðÀÿ¨îð – Мальчик пяти лет.

Источник, происхождение, причина:

¨îðòâðÇðçð ¨÷î Ððð¾¨î – Пьесы Калидасы.
¶õÃð ¨÷î Üð÷±ð – Инфекционные болезни.
®ð÷Ãð ¨îó £Ñð¸ð – Продукт поля (с/х производство).

Определение:

Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð ¨îðÙð – Работа слуги.
ØððøüÜð÷ ¨îð ±ðôü¸ðÐð – Жужжание пчел.
¡ðÑð ¨îó ¨öîÑðð çð÷ – По Вашей милости (с Вашего позволения).

×ðµµðð÷ü ¨îó òäðêðð – Образование детей.
çëðó ¨îó èÃÚðð – Убийство женщины.
ÏðÐÚð ¨îð ãÚðÚð – Расход денег.

Часть целого:

Üð÷¾ó ¨îð ¾ô¨îÀÿð – Кусок хлеба.
ÑðôçÃð¨î ¨îð Ñðöæ¿ – Страница книги.

Цель:

ÑðóÐð÷ ¨îð ÑððÐðó – Вода для питья.
®ððÐð÷ ¨îó Ùð÷ºð – Обеденный стол.

Особенность:

×ðµµð÷ ¨îó çðÜâðÃðð – Невиновность ребенка.
Ùððû ¨îó ÙðÙðÃðð – Любовь матери.
Òõîâðð÷ü ¨îó ¨îð÷ÙðâðÃðð – Нежность цветов.

Заметьте: Существительное или местоимение, к которому относится ¨îð, ведет себя как прилагательное на -¡ð и определяет существительное, которое следует за ним. ¨îð, поэтому, изменяется как окончание -¡ð в прилагательном, согласуясь с последующим существительным в числе, роде и падеже. Косвенные формы местоимений на -¡ð, а именно, ýçð¨îð, £çð¨îð, ò¨îçð¨îð, Ùð÷Üð, Ãð÷Üð, èÙððÜð, ÃðôÙèðÜð и ¡ÑðÐðð (кроме выражения ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð) и т.д., используются всегда как прилагательные. Фактически, наклонные формы всех Существительных с ¨î ð можно также рассмотреть, поскольку Притяжательное Прилагательное изменяется на - ýá и - ¦.

Заметьте: ¡ÑðÐðð используется также как усилительное (или эмфатическое) прилагательное, когда оно следует за существительным или местоимением с -¨îð или -Üð и означает «собственный». Формы местоимений на -¨îð или -Üð, определяющие подлежащее, всегда заменяются рефлексивным ¡ÑðÐðð. ¡ÑðÐðð «собственный» (со своими модификациями ¡ÑðÐðó и ¡ÑðÐð÷), фактически, – прилагательное от ¡ðÑð и используется как таковое.

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø – Мальчик просит свою книгу.

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð – Мальчик сказал своей матери.

ÜðÙð ¡ÑðÐðð (а не £çð¨îð) Ñðð¿ ÑðÁÿÃðð èø – Рама читает свой урок.
âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó (а не £çð¨îó) ò¨îÃðð×ð ÒîðÀÿ Àðâðó – Мальчик разорвал свою книгу.
£çðÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (а не £çð¨÷î) Øððýá çð÷ ¨îèð – Он сказал своему брату.
Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐð÷ (а не Ùð÷Ü÷) ³ðÜ ¸ððÃðð èõü – Я иду домой.
ÃðôÙð ¡ÑðÐðð (а не ÃðôÙèðÜð) ¨îðÙð ¨îÜð÷ – Вы делаете свою работу.
£çð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó (а не £çð¨îó)ò¨îÃðð×ð òÙðâð ±ðýá – Он нашел свою книгу.
ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð (а не £çð¨îð) Ñðð¿ ÑðÁÿÐðð èø – Рама должен прочитать свой урок.
£çð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (а не £çð¨÷î) Øððýá çð÷ ÑðÃðð µðâðð – Он узнал от своего брата.
Но £çð÷ £çð¨÷î Øððýá Ðð÷ ×ðÃððÚðð – Его брат сказал ему. Здесь £çð÷ – косвенное дополнение в дательном падеже.

Отметьте различие

Ùðøü £çðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð – Я встретил его в своем доме. (Ùðøü– подлежащее).
Ùðøü £çðçð÷ £çð¨÷î ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð – Я встретил его в его доме. (Ùðøü – подлежащее).
ãðè Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð – Он встретил меня в своем доме. (ãðè – подлежащее).
ãðè Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð – Он встретил меня в моем доме. (ãðè – подлежащее).

¡ÑðÐðð (возвратное местоимение ведет себя как прилагательное. Оно заменяет притяжательные местоимения Ãð÷Üð твой, Ùð÷Üð мой, ÃðôÙèðÜð твой (вежл.), £çð¨îð его и т.д.) во всех случаях, когда они определяют логическое подлежащее в предложении (или «деятель»), находится ли это логическое подлежащее в прямом или косвенном падеже с Ðð÷ или çð÷ (в страдательном залоге) или с ¨îð÷.

В прямом или косвенном падеже с Ðð÷ логическое подлежащее совпадает с грамматическим:

Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃðð èõü – Я делаю свою работу.

ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð – Мною сделана моя работа.

Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (Ùðô»ð÷) ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¡µ¶ð âð±ðÃðð èø – Мне моя работа нравится.

Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð Ððèóü èð÷Ãðð – Мною моя работа не делается.

Во всех четырех предложениях местоимение ¡ÑðÐðð заменило Ùð÷Üð.

Но в предложении наподобие –

Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá Ðð÷ ¨îèð – Мне мой брат сказал –

Ùð÷Ü÷ не может быть заменено на ¡ÑðÐð÷.

¡ÑðÐðð иногда используется для обозначения ÃðôÙèðÜð (или Ãð÷Üð) = + èÙððÜð (или Ùð÷Üð) в таких предложениях как:

Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ÑðÐðð èó èø – Этот дом наш (ваш и мой), где говорящий человек включен в ¡ÑðÐðð либо фактически, или из дружелюбия, или смирения со стороны говорящего (дом, фактически, принадлежит одному говорящему).

Дальнейшее расширение "дружелюбия или смирения" достигается во фразе:

Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ðÑð¨îð èó èø (Этот дом ведь Ваш) вместо Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð Ùð÷Üð èø (Этот дом мой).

Однако, ¡ÑðÐðð используется как усилительное прилагательное (собственный), определяющее формы на -¨îð или –Üð, за которыми оно неизменно следует:

ÜðÙð ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðð ³ðÜ – собственный дом Рамы;

Ùð÷Üó ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð – моя собственная книга;

ÃðôÙèðÜ÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îÑðÀÿ÷ – твоя собственная одежда и т.д..

(a) Adjectives ending in ¡ð (including Possessive Adjectives change to ýá when qualifiying a Feminine Nown in any case or number:

¡µ¶ð âðÀÿ¨îð `a good boy`, but ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿ¨îó `a good girl`; ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿò¨îÚððü, ¡µ¶ÿó âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷, ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷, similarly Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùð÷ü, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ðð÷ü Ùð÷ü etc.

The ¡ð changes to ¦ when the Adjective is qualifying a Masculine Noun either in the oblique form or in the Plural (Direct Oblique) : ¡µ¶÷ÿ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷, ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î `good boys`, ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýáû ` my brothers`, Ùð÷Ü÷ ØððýüÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc. A few A¡ð - Adjectives are excepted from this rule: çðãðð `one and a quarter`, ×ðòÁÿÚðð`of superior quality`, ³ðò¾Úðð `of inferior quality`, £ÙðÇð `nice`, Çôò®ðÚðð `unhappy, unfortunate`. All the other Adjectives (âððâð `red`, ØððÜó `heavy` etc.) remain unchanged: âððâð ¨îÑðÀÿð (masc.) `red cloth`, âððâð ¨îÑðÀÿ÷, `red cloths`, âððâð çððÀÿó `red sari`. Case-signs are attached only to the Nouns, the Adjective having only the oblique form: ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá çð÷, èÙððÜ÷ äðèÜ Ùð÷ü, £çð ¡ðÇÙðó çð÷, Ùðô©Ãð ÇóÐð ÑðÜ, èÙð ±ðÜó×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ but see :- Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns ×ðÀÿð÷ü Ðð÷, ¶ð÷¾ð÷ü çð÷, ýÃðÐð÷ çð÷, ¦¨î Ðð÷, µððÜ Ðð÷, ×ðèôÃðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ¶ð÷ò¾Úðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ×ðôÜó çð÷; ¡ÑðÐðð used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¨ôî¶., however, does not change: ¨ôî¶ Ùð÷ü (Plural).

(a) attached to the oblique form of a Noun or a Pronoun denotes `like`, which then functions as an Adjective :

±ððÚð-çðð cow-like`, ¨ôîÄð÷-çðð `dog-like`, Ùðô»ð-çðð `me-like`, ÃðôÙð-çðð `you-like`,

£Ðð-çðð `them-like`.

The çðð of these Adjectives changes in the oblique and the Feminine like ordinary ¡ð-Adjectives.

For further use of ¨îð, See:- A Noun or Pronoun + ¨îð and the corresponding forms of Ùð÷Üð, Ãð÷Üð etc. are, in fact, adjectives (eding in- ¡ð).

ÜðÙð ¨îó ò¨îÃðð×ð is `Ram-owned book`, and

çðð÷Ðð÷ ¨îð ¨îÀÿð is `gold-made bangle`.

It is due to the adjectival nature of these ¨îð, Üð forms that they change to ¨îó, Üó, ¨÷î and Ü÷ as all -¡ð ending adjectives do.

Vocative Case

The vocative case, i.e., the form of a Noun used for addressing or calling a person, such as Ram, come here! has no relation with the other words in the sentence. Ram is, in fact, itself an independent sentence conveying such ideas as `listen to me`, `pay attention!`, `be careful!` `don`t do it!` etc. in accordance with the situation and teh intonation of the vocative word. The vocative form is identical with the oblique, except that in the plural, ¡ð÷ü loss its nasalization. There are no case-signs but certain Interjections (¡ð÷) âðÀÿ¨÷î ! Boy!` (¡ð÷) âðÀÿ¨îð÷ `Boys!`

(¦) âðÀÿ¨îó ! Girl!` (¡ð÷) âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ `Girls!`

è÷ ýáäãðÜ ! `O God!` ¡Ü÷ Ððóµð `O wretch!`.

But µððµðð! `Uncle!` ÇðÇð ! `Grandpa! etc. do not change.

Note: The nasalized (-¡ð÷ü) forms should never be used for vocative plural, as is sometimes done by careless writers.

й

CHAPTER XVI

``A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun``. It functions as a Noun, except that it cannot be used as the name of a person or a thing. It is ``used instead of a Noun that is used elsewhere or is suggested by the context. Thus it permits us to avoid the unpleasant repetition of a Noun or the unnecessary naming of a person (or thing) that is already known``. (Curme).

A Hindi Pronoun is, like a Noun, affected by Number and case, but not by Gender (which is indicated by the verbal forms, or by the Adjectives).

In Hindi, there are six classes of Pronouns:

(1) Personal, (2) Demonstrativ, (3) Reflexive, (4) Relative,
(5) Indefinite, and (6) Interrogative.

Personal Pronouns are used for `the person speaking`, the person spoken to` and `the person or thing spoken about`. There are thus three Persons:

Pronouns indicating the person speaking are said to be of the First Person. These are Ùðøü `I` (singular) and èÙð `we` (plural). (èÙð is oftern used for Ùðøü by authors and editors and colloquially). Pronouns indicating the person spoken to are said to be of the Second Person. These are Ãðõ `thou` (singular), ÃðôÙð `you` (plural) and ¡ðÑð `you` (honorific: always takes third person plural verbs). Ãðõ is used in addressing God, children and, occasionally, very intimate friends. It may also be used in anger or to express disrespect or in fondly addressing one`s mother, sister, younger brother etc. (but seldom father, uncle and grandfather). ÃðôÙð is used in addressing God, children and, occasionally, very intimate friends. It may also be used in a nger or to express disrespect or in fondly addressing one`s mother, sister, younger brother etc. (but seldom father, uncle and grandfather). ¡ðÑð is the polite and respectful form of address for all, both in the singular and the plural. (it is occasionally used also for a person `spoken about`.) See font face="AkrutiOffdevDynamic" size="5">The singular forms ãðè and Úðè are not used for a person unless he (or she) can also be addressed as Ãðõ when spoken to. ãð÷ and Úð÷ are the usual forms in both singular and plural. For things, however, the ``correct`` number is used. In polite speech, ¡ðÑð is almost invariably used instead of Úð÷ when the person spoken about is present (as``the gentleman here``)..Pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken about (other than the person speaking and the person spoken to) are said to be of the Third Person. These are ãðè and Úðè `he, she, it` (singular), and ãð÷ and Úð÷ `they and these` (plural).

(i) ãðè, Úðè, ãð÷ and Úð÷ are really Demonstrative Pronouns, used also as Personal. See:- Demonstrative Pronouns are used for `pointing out` a relatively remote or proximate person or thing. The Demonstrative Pronouns are:- ãðè, Úðè, ãð÷ and Úð÷ are Personal or Demonstrative, can be ascertained from only the situation or the context. When there is definite `pointing out`, they are Demonstrative. When there is more substitution of Nouns, they are Personal. In talk, Demonstrative pronouns are often accompanied with gesture `i.e.` `pointing out`.

ãðè and ãð÷ refer to the absent or relatively remote person (s) and thing (s); (``he, she, it-three,»«; Úðè and Úð÷ refer to the present or relatively proximate person (s) and thing (s)- (``he, she, it-here``, ``these-here)»«. The singular forms ãðè and Úðè are not used for a person unless he (or she) can also be addressed as Ãðõ when spoken to. ãð÷ and Úð÷ are the usual forms in both singular and plural. For things, however, the ``correct`` number is used. In polite speech, ¡ðÑð is almost invariably used instead of Úð÷ when the person spoken about is present (as``the gentleman here``). In writing, ¡ðÑð is sometimes used (as ``the gentleman``) for an author, scholar, leader etc. introduced or described to the readers. The usage, however, is somewhat archaic. Use of Úðè and ãðè Plural forms, though common, should be carefully avoided.

All the Pronouns (of whatever class) except Ùðøü, èÙð Ãðõ and ÃðôÙð and the Reflexive (109) are considered to be of the Third Person. See:- Thus, the present Indicative forms of the root µðâð are as follows:-with a Masculine subject:-

singular plural

First Person Ùðøü µðâðÃðð èõü `I move`, èÙð µðâðÃð÷ èø `we move`.
Second Person Ãðõ µðâðÃðð èøü `thou movest`, ÃðôÙð µðâðÃð÷ èð÷ `you move`.
Third Person ãðè µðâðÃðð èøü `he (or it) moves`, ãð÷ µðâðÃð÷ èøü `they move`.

With a Feminine subject:-

singular Plural

1st person Ùðøü µðâðÃðó èõû èÙð µðâðÃðó èøü
2nd " Ãðõ µðâðÃðó èøü ÃðôÙð µðâðÃðó èð÷
3rd " ãðè µðâðÃðó èøü ãð÷ µðâðÃðó èøü

Note (ii). Generally, ãðè and Úðè are pronounced as ãðð÷ and Úð÷.

Demonstrative Pronouns are used for `pointing out` a relatively remote or proximate person or thing. The Demonstrative Pronouns are:- ãðè, Úðè, ãð÷ and Úð÷ are Personal or Demonstrative, can be ascertained from only the situation or the context. When there is definite `pointing out`, they are Demonstrative. When there is more substitution of Nouns, they are Personal. In talk, Demonstrative pronouns are often accompanied with gesture `i.e.` `pointing out`. Reflexive Pronouns substitue and refer to a Noun or Pronoun which is, as a rule, the logical subject of the sentence.

Hindi has only three Reflexive Pronouns : ¡ðÑð, its oblique forms ¡ÑðÐðð and ¡ÑðÐð÷, and a compound of these two, ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð; ¡ðÑðçð Ùð÷ðòÐðÐð±ð `each other` or `one another` (119-21). The latter is also, in its origin, a Reflexive Pronoun.

Of these, ¡ðÑð (occasionally followed by èó) [294 (a)] has an adjectival (intensifying) force and qualifies a Noun or Pronoun which it usually follows, and which, as a rule, is the logical subject of the sentence.

ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð (èó) ãðèðü ±ðÚðð Æðð `Ram himself had gone there`;

Ùðô»ð÷ ¡ðÑð èó ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿ÷±ðð `I shall have to go myself`;

ãð÷ ¡ðÑð (èó) ¡ð¦ü±ð÷ `they themselves will come`;

ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð Øðõ®ðð èø `Ram is himself hungry`;

£çðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð èó Úðè Ñðëð òâð®ðð èø `he himself has written this letter`.

(i) ¡ðÑð is frequently replaced by çãðÚðü (Sanskrit) or by ®ðôÇ (Persian): ÜðÙð çãðÚðü (èó) ãðèðü ±ðÚðð Æðð, ãðè çãðÚðü ¡ð¦±ðð, ÜðÙð ®ðôÇ Øðõ®ðð èø|

¡ðÑð (èó) occasionally qualufies Nouns or Pronouns which are not the logical subjects of the sentences:

£çð¨îð ¡ðÑð òÇãððâð òÐð¨îâð ±ðÚðð èø `he has himself become a bankrupt`;

Ðð÷Ãðð Ùð÷ü ¡ðÑð (èó) òèÙÙðÃð Ððèóü èø `the leader himself has no courage.`

The current tendency, however, is to replace ¡ðÑð in all such cases by çãðÚðü or ®ðôÇ òÇãððâðð òÐð¨îâð ±ðÚðð èø, Ðð÷Ãðð Ùð÷ü çãðÚðü (èó) òèÙÙðÃð Ððèóü èø|

Note also that ¡ðÑð, used as an Adjective, does not attach case-signs. (See:- The Reflexive ¡ðÑð as already stated [109 (b).] change to ¡ÑðÐð÷ before ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü and ÑðÜ: ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷, ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü etc. Ðð÷ is not attached to the reflexive ¡ðÑð, but only the subject (Noun or Pronoun) to which ¡ðÑð refers. In such cases, ¡ðÑð itself remains unchanged.

ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ðÑð (èó) Úðè ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð Ram himself did this work`
£çðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð Ùðô»ð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð `he himself sent for me`.

For denoting the various senses of ¨îð, ¡ðÑð changes to ¡ÑðÐðð, ¡ÑðÐðó, ¡ÑðÐð÷ [109 (d)]

The Plural forms are the same as those of the Singular.

¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð remains unchanged.

¡ðÑð èó can, however, be used also as an Adverb, when it means `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`. Thus, ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð èó ãðèðü ±ðÚðð can denote, if the context so demands, `Ram had gone there of his own accord`. cf. the adverbial use of ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð, under (c) below. The Reflexive ¡ðÑð is, of course, to be differentiated from the personal ¡ðÑð which is nothing but a polite form of ÃðôÙð (or Úð÷ or ãð÷), while the Reflexive ¡ðÑð can refer to any `person`. The oblique form of ¡ðÑð is ¡ÑðÐð÷ meaning, oneself, with ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü or pr as required (but never with Ðð÷). See:- The Reflexive ¡ðÑð as already stated [109 (b).] change to ¡ÑðÐð÷ before ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü and ÑðÜ: ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷, ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü etc. Ðð÷ is not attached to the reflexive ¡ðÑð, but only the subject (Noun or Pronoun) to which ¡ðÑð refers. In such cases, ¡ðÑð itself remains unchanged.

ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ðÑð (èó) Úðè ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð Ram himself did this work`
£çðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð Ùðô»ð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð `he himself sent for me`.

For denoting the various senses of ¨îð, ¡ðÑð changes to ¡ÑðÐðð, ¡ÑðÐðó, ¡ÑðÐð÷ [109 (d)]

The Plural forms are the same as those of the Singular.

¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð remains unchanged.

¡ÑðÐð÷ refers to a Noun or a Pronoun which must be the logical subject of the sentence:

ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷ ãðÐð Ùð÷ü ÑððÚðð `Ram found himself in the forest`;

¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ò¨îçðó ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð Ððèóü Çó®ðÃðð `nobody sees a fault in himself.`

¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð is used either as an emphatic (or unambiguous) form for the oblique ¡ÑðÐð÷ (see note below), or as an adverb maning `of one`s own accord, automatically, spontaneously`. Thus:-

çðóÃðð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð) ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð òÇÚðð `Sita blamed herself (her own self)»

ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð) çð÷ Ñðõ¶ð `I asked myself (my own self)».

But in ãðè ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð µðâðð ±ðÚðð `he went away of his own accord`, ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð is adverbial, and can be replaced by ¡ðÑð èó: ãðè ¡ðÑð èó µðâðð ±ðÚðð. see:- ¡ðÑð èó can, however, be used also as an Adverb, when it means `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`. Thus, ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð èó ãðèðü ±ðÚðð can denote, if the context so demands, `Ram had gone there of his own accord`. cf. the adverbial use of ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð, under (c) below.

(d) ¡ÑðÐðð `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from ¡ðÑð, and is used (like the ¨îð forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications ¡ÑðÐðó and ¡ÑðÐð÷) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence.

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø `the boy asks for his book`;

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð `the boy told his mother,»

Note: ¡ÑðÐð÷ and ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð (except when adverbial) are used only in the oblique cases with ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü, and pr (but never with Ðð÷) . In ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð, ¡ðÑð is really a Nown meaning `self` so that ¡ÑðÐð-¡ðÑð = one`s self. ¡ÑðÐð÷ is the shorter form of ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð, with the Noun ¡ðÑð omitted, but implied, so that ¡ÑðÐð÷ = ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð =one`s self = oneself.

110. A relative Pronoun is related to a Noun or a Pronoun occurring in the main sentence, the Relative itself occurring in a subordinate sentence and joining the two.

Hinid has only one Relative Pronoun, ¸ðð÷ `who, which, that, what.`

ãðè Ñð÷üòçðâð òÙðâð ±ðýá ¸ðð÷ ®ðð÷ ±ðýá Æðó `the pencil,which had been lost, has been found.`

The main sentence isãðè Ñð÷üòçðâð òÙðâð ±ðýá `the pencil has been found`; the subordinate sentence is `¸ðð÷ ®ðð÷ ±ðýá Æðó` `which had been lost, has been found.`

The main sentence is ãðè Ñð÷üòçðâð òÙðâð ±ðýá `the pencil has been found`; the subordinate sentence is `¸ðð÷ ®ðð÷ ±ðýá Æðó` `which had been lost`. ¸ðð÷ `which had been lost`. ¸ðð÷ which occurs in the latter is related to Ñð÷üòçðâð occurring in the main sentence, and joins the two sentences like a conjunction. See:-Conjunctions are words which join together or connect words, sentences, or Parts of a sentence (67): Mother and child came. (2) Is it good or bad? (3) I came, but you had gone. (4) you said that you would come. (5) The servant will wait until you come.

It is, however, not often that a conjunction connects two words, sentences, `mother came` and `child came` which have been contracted into one for the sake of economy. Similarly, `is it good or bad` is contracted from `isit good` and `is it bad`. Only in sentences like, `put two and two together`, or `Sita and Kamla are cousin` can a conjuntion be said to connect two words. In the third example, `I came but you had gone`, the two smaller sentences are independent of each other. In the fourth sentence, however, `you would come` is subordinate to `you said`, since it functions as the object of `said`. In the last sentence, `until you come` is subordinate sentences so the main sentences to the main sentence are called Subordinating. `and`, `or`, and `but` in the above examples are Co-ordinating; `that` and `until` are subordinating.). Similarly, ¸ðð÷ ¡ðÚðð Æðð, ãðè µðâðð ±ðÚðð `he, who had come, is gone`. Here ãðè µðâðð ±ðÚðð is the main sentence and ¸ðð÷ ¡ðÚðð Æðð is the subordinate one. ¸ðð÷ joins the two, at the same time being related to ãðè.

¸ðð÷ is both Singular and Plural. ¸ðð÷ is always accompanied with ãðè or ãð÷ in the main sentence. Both ¸ðð÷ and ãðè (ãð÷) refer to one and the same person or thing. ãðè (ãð÷) is called the `Correlative` of ¸ðð÷. çðð÷ (`he, they), as a Correlative of ¸ðð÷ is now obsolete except in proverbs and maxims.

Indefinite Pronouns refer to an unknown or unidentified person or thing.

Hindi has only two Indefinite Pronouns ¨îð÷ýá and ¨ôî¶; ¨îð÷ýá `someone, somebody` refers to a person and ¨ôî¶ `somethings` to a thing.

¨îð÷ýá ¡ð Üèð èø `Somebody is coming;

£çð¨îð ¨ôî¶ ®ðð÷ ±ðÚðð èø `he has lost something`;

ÇõÏð Ùð÷ü ¨ôî¶ ÑðÀÿ ±ðÚðð èø `something has fallen into the milk`;

¡ð¸ð ¨îð÷ýá Ððèóü ¡ðÚðð `nobody came to-day.`

³ðÜ Ùð÷ü ¨ôî¶ Ððèóü èø `there is nothing in the house.`

(i) ¨ôî¶ along with ©Úðð (114), is really a neuter form-a rare occurrence in Hindi.

(ii) ¨ôî¶ is also used as an adjective (numeral and quantitative) and as an Adverb meaning `some`, `a few`, `a little`, `partly`.

(iii) ¨îð÷ýá may be used as an Adverb, in the sense of `some, about`.

¨îð÷ýá may also be used as the plural form and signify `some people` ¨îð÷ýá ¡ð Üè÷ èøü `some people are coming`.

Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking questions.

Hind has only two Interrogative Pronouns- ¨îð÷ýá and ©Úðð, the former usually referring tp `person` and the latter to `things` either in singular or in plural:

ãðè ¨îðøÐð èø ? `who is he?`;
Úðè ©Úðð èø ? `what is this ?`;
ãð÷ ¨îðøÐð èøü ? `who are they ?`;
Úð÷ ©Úðð èøü ? `what are these ?`

©Úðð is really a neuter form - a rare oceeurremce in Hindi.

©Úðð (frequently expressed but occasionally implied) is used for denoting the interrogative nature of a sentence (except when another interrogativ word is present (192 Note):

©Úðð ãðè ¡ðÚðð èø ? `has he come?`;
(©Úðð) ÜðÙð çðð÷ ±ðÚðð ? `has Ram gone to sleep?.

For further uses of ©Úðð (as a Compound Pronoun),©Úðð-©Úðð `which things?`, `what things?`:
Øððýá ×ððºððÜ çð÷ ©Úðð-©Úðð âðð¦ èøü ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. ©Úðð-çð÷-©Úðð denotes unexpected and abruptchange of situation, usually for the worse. ©Úðð.....©Úðð is adverbial and denotes, equally, without difference or distinction. It has a conjunctive force.
©Úðð ÃðôÙð, ©Úðð ãðè, Çð÷Ððð÷ü Ùðõ®ðá èøü `you and he are both (equally) fools`.
©Úðð òÐðÏðáÐð, ©Úðð ÏðÐðó, çðØðó ÙðÜ÷ü±ð÷ `whether rich or poor, all will pass away`.
¨îðøÐð and ©Úðð may be used as a Relative Pronoun:
ãðè ¨îðøÐð èø, ¨îð÷ýá Ððèóü ¸ððÐðÃðð `nobody knows who he is.`
ÑðÃðð âð±ðð¡ð÷ ò¨î ¨îâð £çðÐð÷ ©Úðð ò¨îÚðð `find out what he did yesterday.`
©Úðð is used as an Exclamatory Adjective for denoting the surprising or striking nature of some quality etc:
©Úðð (èó) çðôÐÇÜ ÈäÚð èø ! `what a lovely scene!`
©Úðð Ñðð±ðâð ¡ðÇÙðó èø ! `what an idiotic person !`
Úðè ©Úðð ×ð÷ãð¨õîÒîó èø ! `what foolishness is this!`

©Úðð is also used as Adverb expressing emphatic negation:
ãðè ¡ðÇÙðó ©Úðð èø, Üðêðçð èø `call him a man? he is a demon`;
×ðµµðð ©Úðð èø, ±ðôâðð×ð ¨îð Òõîâð èø `it`s not a child, it`s a rose.`
ãðè ÇðøÀÿÃðð ©Úðð èø, £ÀÿÃðð èø `dose he run? he flies!`
ÃðôÙð Ùðô«îÇÙð÷ Ùð÷ü ©Úðð ¸ðóÃðð÷±ð÷ `you will win the case? impossible!
Another Adverbial use of ©Úðð is as a declarative, rhetorical in terrogative:
Úðè ©Úðð ÑðÀÿó èø ÃðôÙèðÜó ò¨îÃðð×ð! `here lies your book! can`t you see?
Ùðøü Úðè ©Úðð ×ðø¿ð èõü `am I not sitting here (don`t you see, I am sitting here)?`
The pair ©Úðð ....©Úðð ©Úðð-©Úðð `which things?`, `what things?`:
Øððýá ×ððºððÜ çð÷ ©Úðð-©Úðð âðð¦ èøü ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. is also adverbial (conjunctive) in sense.

CHAPTER XVII

Hindi Pronouns attach the same case-signs as the Nouns, namely, Ðð÷, ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü, ÑðÜ and ¨îð. But the oblique itself, in some cases, is formed differently from the Noun.

The oblique forms of the various Pronouns are made as follows:

In the singular, Úðè, ãðè, ¸ðð÷ and çðð÷ change respectively to ýçð, £çð, ò¸ðçð and òÃðçð while ¨îðøÐð and ©Úðð change to ò¨îçð and ¨îð÷ýá and ¨ôî¶ to ò¨îçðó before all the case-signs: ýçð¨îð÷, £çðÙð÷ü, ò¸ðçðÐð÷, ò¨îçð ÑðÜ, ò¨îçðó çð÷. In the Plural, except before Ðð÷, these change to ýÐð, £Ðð, ò¸ðÐð, òÃðÐð, ò¨îÐð and ò¨îÐèóü:ýÐð¨îð, £Ððçð÷, ò¸ðÐðÙð÷ü, ò¨îÐèóü ¨îð÷. Before Ðð÷, the Plural oblique forms are ýÐèð÷ü, £Ðèð÷ü, ò¸ðÐèð÷ü, ò¨îÐèð÷ü and ò¨îÐèóü: ýÐèð÷üÐð÷, £Ðèð÷üÐð÷, ò¨îÐèð÷üÐð÷, ò¨îÐèóüÐð÷. Ùðøü and Ãðõ remain unchanged before Ðð÷: ÙðøüÐð÷, ÃðõÐð÷. Followed by the rest of the case-signs, Ùðøü and Ãðõ change to Ùðô»ð and Ãðô»ð: Ùðô»ð¨îð÷, Ãðô»ðçð÷. èÙð and ÃðôÙð remain unchanged before all case-signs: èÙðÐð÷,èÙðçð÷, èÙð¨îð÷, ÃðôÙð¨îð÷, ÃðôÙðÙð÷ü. Ùðøü, Ãðõ èÙð and ÃðôÙð do not attach ¨îð. Instead, they change into Ùð÷Üð, Ãð÷Üð, èÙððÜð and ÃðôÙèðÜð. These latter forms have all the significations of ¨îð and modify to Ùð÷Üó, Ãð÷Üó, èÙððÜó, ÃðôÙèðÜó and Ùð÷Ü, Ãð÷Ü÷, èÙððÜ÷, ÃðôÙèðÜ÷. When used as an Adjective

(ii) ¨ôî¶ is also used as an adjective (numeral and quantitative) and as an Adverb meaning `some`, `a few`, `a little`, `partly`.

¨ôî¶ remains unchanged See ¡ÑðÐð÷ refers to a Noun or a Pronoun which must be the logical subject of the sentence:

ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷ ãðÐð Ùð÷ü ÑððÚðð `Ram found himself in the forest`;

¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ò¨îçðó ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð Ððèóü Çó®ðÃðð `nobody sees a fault in himself.`

Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns ×ðÀÿð÷ü Ðð÷, ¶ð÷¾ð÷ü çð÷, ýÃðÐð÷ çð÷, ¦¨î Ðð÷, µððÜ Ðð÷, ×ðèôÃðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ¶ð÷ò¾Úðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ×ðôÜó çð÷; ¡ÑðÐðð used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¨ôî¶., however, does not change: ¨ôî¶ Ùð÷ü (Plural)..

An an alternative to ¨îð÷, all the oblique forms attach ¦ in Singular and è÷ü in Plural: ýçð÷ (= ýçð¨îð÷), ýÐè÷ü (= ýÐð¨îð÷), £çð÷, £Ðè÷ü, Ãðô»ð÷, ÃðôÙè÷ü, èÙð, however, makes èÙð÷ü and not èÙè÷ü (See:- Ùðô»ð÷, Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (114) With pronouns, the ¨îð÷ forms and ¨îð÷, a pronominal case-sign would have been completely discarded but for its utility in the adjectival use of Pronouns. In such phrases as Ùðô»ð ÇóÐð ¨îð÷ Ðð çðÃððý¦, £Ðð âðð÷±ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ Úðèðû ×ðôâðð¡ð÷. (127), -¦ or -è÷ü forms cannot be used.

Note: The indefinite Pronouns ¨îð÷ýá and ¨ôî¶ do not attach ¦ or è÷ü.

The Personal Pronoun ¡ðÑð attaches all case-signs without any change ¡ðÑðÐð÷, ¡ðÑð¨îð÷, ¡ðÑðÙð÷ü.

Note: The Personal Pronoun ¡ðÑð is always Plural (honorific).

The Reflexive ¡ðÑð as already stated See:- ¡ÑðÐð÷ refers to a Noun or a Pronoun which must be the logical subject of the sentence:

ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷ ãðÐð Ùð÷ü ÑððÚðð `Ram found himself in the forest`;

¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ò¨îçðó ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð Ððèóü Çó®ðÃðð `nobody sees a fault in himself.`

change to ¡ÑðÐð÷ before ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü and ÑðÜ: ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷, ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü etc. Ðð÷ is not attached to the reflexive ¡ðÑð, but only the subject (Noun or Pronoun) to which ¡ðÑð refers. In such cases, ¡ðÑð itself remains unchanged.

ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ðÑð (èó) Úðè ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð Ram himself did this work`
£çðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð Ùðô»ð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð `he himself sent for me`.

For denoting the various senses of ¨îð, ¡ðÑð changes to ¡ÑðÐðð, ¡ÑðÐðó, ¡ÑðÐð÷ [See :- (d) ¡ÑðÐðð `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from ¡ðÑð, and is used (like the ¨îð forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications ¡ÑðÐðó and ¡ÑðÐð÷) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence.

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø `the boy asks for his book`;

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð `the boy told his mother,»

The Plural forms are the same as those of the Singular.

¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð remains unchanged.

CHAPTER XVIII

Compound Pronouns: Two or more Pronouns may be compounded, or the same Pronoun repeated to denote various shades of meanings. The following are some of the more important combinations:-

¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð See:- ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð is used either as an emphatic (or unambiguous) form for the oblique ¡ÑðÐð÷ (see note below), or as an adverb maning `of one`s own accord, automatically, spontaneously`. Thus:-

çðóÃðð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð) ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð òÇÚðð `Sita blamed herself (her own self)»

ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð) çð÷ Ñðõ¶ð `I asked myself (my own self)».

But in ãðè ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð µðâðð ±ðÚðð `he went away of his own accord`, ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð is adverbial, and can be replaced by ¡ðÑð èó: ãðè ¡ðÑð èó µðâðð ±ðÚðð. and See ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð (109-c) may be used as an Adverb of manner and denotes `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`:
ãðè ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð µðâðð ±ðÚðð `he went away of his own accord,
¡ðÑð-çð÷-¡ðÑð = ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð adverb. See:- ¡ðÑð-çð÷-¡ðÑð = `spontaneously` = ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð
¡ðÑð-èó-¡ðÑð `by oneself`, `to oneself`, `aside (in dramas)».
¸ðð÷ ¨îð÷ýá `who (so)ever,» ¸ðð÷ ¨ôî¶ `what (so) ever`:
¸ðð÷ ¨îð÷ýá ¡ð¦, £çð¨îð çãðð±ðÃð èø
`whosoever comes is welcome`.
¸ðð÷ ¨ôî¶ òÙðâð÷, Ü®ð âðð÷ `keep whatever you get`.
¸ðð÷-¸ðð÷=¸ðð÷ ¨îð÷ýá or ¸ðð÷-¨ôî¶
¸ðð÷-¸ðð÷ ¡ð¦, £çð÷ ò®ðâðð¡ð÷ `whosoever may come, feed him`.
¸ðð÷-¸ðð÷ µððòè¦, òÙðâð÷±ðð `whatsoever is required, will be given`.
¸ðð÷ ò¨î = ¸ðð÷:
ãðè ¡ðÇÙðó ÙðÜ ±ðÚðð ¸ðð÷ ò¨î ×ðóÙððÜ Æðð `the man, who was ill, is dead`. ¸ðð÷ ò¨î is now archaic, and may be discarded.
¨îð÷ýá-¨îð÷ýá `some, a few` (archaic):
¨îð÷ýá-¨îð÷ýá ÜðÃð Ùð÷ü ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃð÷ èøü `some, work during the night`.
çð×ð ¨îð÷ýá `all, everybody (prural)» (archaic):
çð×ð ¨îð÷ýá çð×ð÷Ü÷ £¿Ãð÷ èøü `everybody gets up in the morning.`
èÜ ¨îð÷ýá = çð×ð ¨îð÷ýá `everybody` [but singular (archaic)]:èÜ ¨îð÷ýá ¸ððÐðÃðð èø `everybody knows`
¨îð÷ýá-Ðð-¨îð÷ýá (App. III 5 (j) `someone or the other,» `somebody or the other,»;

³ðÜ Ùð÷ü ¨îð÷ýá-Ðð-¨îð÷ýá ¡ãðäÚð èð÷±ðð `someone or the other must be in the house.`

(11) ¨îð÷ýá.....¨îð÷ýá `some.....others`, or `one......another`;

¨îð÷ýá ¡ð Üè÷ èøü, ¨îð÷ýá ¸ðð Üè÷ èøü `some are coming, others are going`;
¨îð÷ýá ¡µ¶ð èø, ¨îð÷ýá ×ðôÜð `one is good, another is bad`.
This use of ¨îð÷ýá....¨îð÷ýá is conjunctive.

¨ôî¶ Ðð ¨ôî¶ (App. III 5 (j) `someone or the other`:
èÙð ¨ôî¶-Ðð-¨ôî¶ ¨îÜ âð÷ü±ð÷ `we shall do something or the other`;

(13) ¨ôî¶ ¨îð ¨ôî¶ `something quite different from what was intended or expected`:
ÃðôÙðÐð÷ ¨ôî¶ ¨îð ¨ôî¶ çðÙð»ð òâðÚðð `you took it quite differently`;
¨ôî¶ ¨îð ¨ôî¶ èð÷ ±ðÚðð `something unexpected happened`.

(14) çð×ð -¨ôî¶ `everybody gets up in the morning`.
Ùðô»ð÷ çð×ð-¨ôî¶ òÙðâð ±ðÚðð `I got everything `;
Ùð÷Üð çð×ð-¨ôî¶ ±ðÚðð `I lost everything`.

(15) ×ðèôÃð ¨ôî¶ `a great deal` [also used as an Adverb.

(c)]: ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ×ðèôÃð-¨ôî¶ ÙððâðõÙð èø `Ram knows a great deal`.

(16) ¨ôî¶ ¨ôî¶ `somewhat`, `a little` [Adj. or Adv.
Ùðô»ð÷ ¨ôî¶-¨ôî¶ ×ðô®ððÜ èø `I have a little feer`.

¨îð÷ýá ¡ðøÜ `someone else, anybody else`:
ãðèð Ùðð÷èÐð Ððèóü Æðð, ¨îð÷ýá ¡ðøÜ Æðð `It was not Mohan, it was someone else`;
©Úðð ¨îð÷ýá ¡ðøÜ èø? `is there anybody else?` ¡ðøÜ ¨îð÷ýá=¨îð÷ýá ¡ðøÜ
¡ðøÜ ¨îð÷ýá Ððèóü ¡ðÚðð `nobody else came`. ¨îð÷ýá ÇõçðÜð = ¨îð÷ýá ¡ðøÜ Úðè ¨îð÷ýá ÇõçðÜð èó èø `he is somebody else`. ¨ôî¶ ¡ðøÜ `something else`, `a little more`: ¨ôî¶ ¡ðøÜ âðóò¸ð¦ `please take a little more`.
¨ôî¶ ¡ðøÜ çðôÐðð¡ð÷ `tell us something else`. ¡ðøÜ ¨ôî¶ `something else`:
Ùðô»ð÷ ¡ðøÜ ¨ôî¶ Ððèóü µððòè¦ `I need nothing else`.
¡ðøÜ ¨ôî¶? ` (do you want etc.) anything else?` ¨ôî¶.....¨ôî¶ `some....some` [Conjunctive. [See:- ÑðÜ ëðÐÃðô, ò¨îÐÃðô, Ùð±ðÜ or âð÷ò¨îÐð `but`, ÑßÃÚðôÃð or ×ðòâ¨î `but also, besides, but, on the other hand`;
ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ðÑð ¨îð ¨ôî¶ ò×ð±ððÀð Ððèóü, ÑßÃÚðôÃð (×ðòâ¨î) Øðâðð èó ò¨îÚðð èø
`I have done no charm to you; on the other hand, I have rendered you a service`.
×ðÜÐð `but` is now obsolete.]: ¨îð÷ýá-çðð See:- çðð with ¨îð÷ýá and ¨îðøÐð denotes `any one` and `which one`, respectively: ¨îð÷ýá-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `any book`, ¨îðøÐð-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `which book?`¨îðøÐð-çðð which persons?`:
Ùð÷Ü÷ çððÆð ¨îðøÐð-¨îðøÐð µðâð÷±ðð `which (Plural) of you will accompany me?`
(¨îðøÐð-¨îðøÐð is usually Singular in form, but Plural in sense. Sometimes ¨îðøÐð-¨îðøÐð has the Plural form). ©Úðð-©Úðð `which things?`, `what things?`:
Øððýá ×ððºððÜ çð÷ ©Úðð-©Úðð âðð¦ èøü ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. ©Úðð-çð÷-©Úðð denotes unexpected and abruptchange of situation, usually for the worse. ©Úðð.....©Úðð is adverbial and denotes, equally, without difference or distinction. It has a conjunctive force.
©Úðð ÃðôÙð, ©Úðð ãðè, Çð÷Ððð÷ü Ùðõ®ðá èøü `you and he are both (equally) fools`.
©Úðð òÐðÏðáÐð, ©Úðð ÏðÐðó, çðØðó ÙðÜ÷ü±ð÷ `whether rich or poor, all will pass away`. All Pronouns, Singular or Plural, Direct or Oblique, may be combined with the emphatic particle èó:
Ùðøü èó `I myself`, Ãðõ èó `thou thyself`
¡ðÑð èó `you yourself (honorific)», ¨îð÷ýá èó `hardly any one`,
¨ôî¶ èó `hardly something, hardly a few`

Most of these compounds, however, are affected by Sandhi [50 (c) and 9 (d)] and are slightly modifed:

Ùðô»ð + èó = Ùðô»ðó, Ãðô»ð + èó = Ãðô»ðó, èÙð + èó = (èÙðó), ÃðôÙð+èó=ÃðôÙèó (ÃðôÙèóü), ãðè + èó = ãðèó, Úðè + èó = Úðèó,
£çð + èó = £çðó, ýçð+ èó = ýçðó, ò¸ðçð + èó = ò¸ðçðó,
ò¨îçð+ èó = ò¨îçðó, £Ðð + èó = £Ðèó (£Ðèóü), ýÐð + èó = ýÐèó (ýÐèóü), ò¸ðÐð + èó = ò¸ðÐèó (ò¸ðãèóü), ò¨îÐð+ èó = ò¨îÐèó (ò¨îÐèóü).

Note that:-

ò¨îçðó and ò¨îÐèó serve as Singular and Plural obliques of ¨îð÷ýá. The nasalized forms èÙðóü, ÃðôÙèóü etc. are used only in pronounciation. They are written without the dot.

Miscellaneous Pronouns: ¡Ùðô¨î `so and so`:

(2) ×ðèôÃð `several, a lot, a good many`:

ÃðôÙð-¸ðøçð÷ ÙðøüÐð÷ ×ðèôÃð Ç÷®ð÷ èøü `I have seen a lot like you!`

¡ðÑðçð (Ùð÷ü or ¨îó) `each other, one another, among themselves`.

¡ðÑðçð Ùð÷ü ÙðÃð âðÀÿð÷ `do not quarrel with each other.`
¡ðÑðçð ¨îó `mutual, internal`.

(4) ÑðÜçÑðÜ `mutually (adverb)».

(5) ¦¨î-ÇõçðÜ÷ `each other, one another`:
¦¨î-ÇõçðÜ÷ ¨îð÷ ÙðÃð ÙððÜð÷ `do not beat each other`.
¦¨î-ÇõçðÜ÷ çð÷ ÙðÃð âðÀÿð÷ `do not fight (or qurrel) with each other`.

¦¨î....ÇõçðÜð ( or ÇõçðÜ÷) `one....the other` or `some....others`.

They have conjunctive force:
¦¨î çðô®ðó èø, ÇõçðÜð Çô®ðó èø `one is happy, the other is unhappy`;
¦¨î ÏðÐðó èø, ÇôçðÜð òÐðÏðáÐð `one is rich, the other is poor`.

(7) Òîâððü, ÒîâððÐðð `so and so`:
Òîâððü ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷ `call so and so`.

The ¨îð or Üð forms of Pronouns, when referring to the subject of the senternce, are always replaced by the reflexive ¡ÑðÐðð. See:- (d) ¡ÑðÐðð `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from ¡ðÑð, and is used (like the ¨îð forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications ¡ÑðÐðó and ¡ÑðÐð÷) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence.

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø `the boy asks for his book`;

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð `the boy told his mother,»

ÜðÙð ¡ÑðÐðð (not £çð¨îð) Ñðð¿ ÑðÁÿÃðð èø `Ram reads his lesson`.
âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó (not £çð¨îó) ò¨îÃðð×ð ÒîðÀÿ Àðâðó `The boy tore up his book`.
£çðÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (not £çð¨÷î) Øððýá çð÷ ¨îèð `He told his brother`.
Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐð÷ (not Ùð÷Ü÷) ³ðÜ ¸ððÃðð èõü `I am going home`.
ÃðôÙð ¡ÑðÐðð (not ÃðôÙèðÜð) ¨îðÙð ¨îÜð÷ `You do your work`.
£çð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó (not £çð¨îó)ò¨îÃðð×ð òÙðâð ±ðýá `He found his book`.
ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð (not £çð¨îð) Ñðð¿ ÑðÁÿÐðð èø Ram has to read his lesson.`
£çð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (not £çð¨÷î) Øððýá çð÷ ÑðÃðð µðâðð `he came to know from his brother`.
But £çð÷ £çð¨÷î Øððýá Ðð÷ ×ðÃððÚðð `his brother told him` where £çð÷ is not the subject but the object.

Note the difference-

Ùðøü £çðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `I met him at my house`. (Subject Ùðøü)
Ùðøü £çðçð÷ £çð¨÷î ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `I met him at his house`. (Subject Ùðøü)
ãðè Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `he met me at his house`. (Subject ãðè)
ãðè Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `he met me at my house`. (Subject ãðè)

(For further discussion, see:- ¡ÑðÐðð (reflexive, like Ãð÷Üð, Ùð÷Üð, ÃðôÙèðÜð, £çð¨îð etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer``), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with Ðð÷, or çð÷ (in Passive Voice), or with ¨îð÷ (266-70).

In the direct case and oblique with Ðð÷, the logical subject is identical with the grammatical: Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃðð èõü, ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð:

A logical subject in the oblique with ¨îð÷ or çð÷ is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object:

Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (Ùðô»ð÷) ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¡µ¶ð âð±ðÃðð èø,

Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð Ððèóü èð÷Ãðð.

In all the four sentences, ¡ÑðÐðð has replaced Ùð÷Üð because Ùðøü (the person referred to by Ùð÷Üð) is the logical subject in all the four.

But in a sentence like Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá Ðð÷ ¨îèð, Ùð÷Ü÷ cannot be replaced by ¡ÑðÐð÷ because Øððýá is the subject here and not Ùðøü.

See:- ¡ÑðÐðð is sometimes used for denoting ÃðôÙèðÜð (or Ãð÷Üð)=+èÙððÜð (or Ùð÷Üð) in such sentences as:-

Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ÑðÐðð èó èø `this house is ours (yours and mine)», where the person spoken to is included in ¡ÑðÐðð either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone).

A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility`` is achieved by saying Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ðÑð¨îð èó èø for Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð Ùð÷Üð èø.).

However, ¡ÑðÐðð is used as an intensifying Adjective (=own) qualifying the ¨îð or Üð forms which it invariably follows: ÜðÙð ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðð ³ðÜ Ram`s own house,» Ùð÷Üó ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `my own book`, ÃðôÙèðÜ÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îÑðÀÿ÷ `your own clothes` etc.

As in the case of certain Nouns (see:- The word âðð÷±ð meaning `people`, is sometimes appended to such Masculine Nouns as do not modify in Plural. The signification is that of plurality. but usually, `as a class`: Üð¸ðð âðð÷±ð `kings` (as a class), ¡ðÚðá âðð÷±ð `the Aryans` (as a class), çððÏðô âðð÷±ð `saints, mendicants` (as a class) The compound (Üð¸ðð âðð÷±ð etc.) thus formed is treated as a single word, the element (Üð¸ðð, çððÏðô, etc.) remaining unchanged, and only âðð÷±ð taking case-forms, etc.), the word âðð÷±ð is attached to a plural Pronoun for defining emphasizing plurality: ¡ðÑð âðð÷±ð, èÙð âðð÷±ð, ÃðôÙð âðð÷±ð, Úð÷ âðð÷±ð, ãð÷ âðð÷±ð, ¸ðð÷ âðð÷±ð, ¨îðøÐð âðð÷±ð etc.

In oblique forms, ¡ðÑð, ÃðôÙð and èÙð are not affected while Úð÷, ãð÷ etc. change to ýÐð, £Ðð ÷etc. The case signs are attached to âðð÷±ð only which change to âðð÷±ðð÷ü, ¡ðÑð âðð÷±ðð÷ü Ðð÷, èÙð âðð÷±ðð÷ü çð÷, £Ðð âðð÷±ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc.

The word çð×ð is similarly used for denoting plurality: èÙð çð×ð, ãð÷ çð×ð, £Ðð çð×ðð÷ü Ðð÷, èÙð çð×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ÃðôÙð çð×ðð÷ü Ùð÷ü etc.

The case-signs Ðð÷ ¨îð÷ etc. are tagged on to the Pronouns, (95-Note) but not ÑðÜ (£çð ÑðÜ, ÃðôÙð ÑðÜ).

CHAPTER XIX

An Adjective is a word which qualifies a Noun, a Pronoun or an Adjective:

¡µ¶ð âðÀÿ¨îð `a good boy` ×ðôÜð ¡ðÇÙðó `a bad man`
¨îðâðó ò×ðââðó `a black cat` ¿üÀð ÑððÐðó `cold water`
×ðóÙððÜ âðÀÿ¨îó `a sick girl` Úðè ò¨îÃðð×ð `this book`
ãðè Ùð¨îðÐð `that house` Ùð÷Üó ×ðòèÐð `my sister`
èÙððÜð äðèÜ `our city` ×ðèôÃð ÇõÏð `much milk`
Ñððüµð ÝÑðÚð÷ `five rupees` ¨îðøÐð-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `which book`
×ðèôÃð-çð÷ ¡ðÇÙðó `many men` ¨îýá âðð÷±ð `several people`
±ðèÜð Ððóâðð ¡ð¨îðäð `deep blue sky` ×ðèôÃð ¡µ¶ð ¡ðÇÙðó `very good man`.

Some Adjectives denote a quality (¡µ¶ð, ×ðôÜð, ¨îðâðó); some state number (Ñððûµð), quantity (×ðèôÃð); some describe state or condition (¿üÀð, ×ðóÙððÜ); some only point out (Úðè, ãðè); others particularize or show relation (Ùð÷Üó, èÙððÜð); still others ask question (¨îðøÐð-çðó) etc., etc. Broadly speaking, Adjectives can be divided into two classes describing and distinguishing, i.e. those which merely indicate a quality, and those which point out a person or a thing as distinct from others of their own class. Thus ×ðôÜð, ¨îðâðó, ×ðóÙððÜ, ¿üÀð etc. merely describe, whereas Úðè, ãðè, Ùð÷Üó, èÙððÜð etc. point to thing and persons which are to be distinguished from other persons and things.

Almost all the Pronouns can function as Adjectives:

Úðè ò¨îÃðð×ð `this book`
ãð÷ ×ðµµð÷ `those children` (Demonstrative);
¨îðøÐð ¡ðÇÙðó? `which man?`
©Úðð ¨îðÙð `what work?` (Interrogative);
¨îð÷ýá ¡ðÇÙðó `some man`
¨ôî¶ Òîâð `some fruits` (Indefinite);
¸ðð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î `the boys who` (Relative);

The oblique forms of Pronouns having ¨îð, Üð or Ððð namely, ýçð¨îð, £çð¨îð, ò¨îçð¨îð, Ùð÷Üð, Ãð÷Üð, èÙððÜð, ÃðôÙèðÜð and ¡ÑðÐðð (except in ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð) etc. are used always as Adjectives. In fact, the oblique forms of all Nouns with ¨îð may also be considered as Possessive Adjective changes to-ýá and-¦.

Note- ¡ÑðÐðð is used also as an intensifying (or emphasizing) Adjective when it follows a Noun or Pronoun with ¨îð or Üð and means `own`. see:- The ¨îð or Üð forms of Pronouns, when referring to the subject of the senternce, are always replaced by the reflexive ¡ÑðÐðð. See:- (d) ¡ÑðÐðð `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from ¡ðÑð, and is used (like the ¨îð forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications ¡ÑðÐðó and ¡ÑðÐð÷) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence.

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø `the boy asks for his book`;

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð `the boy told his mother,»

ÜðÙð ¡ÑðÐðð (not £çð¨îð) Ñðð¿ ÑðÁÿÃðð èø `Ram reads his lesson`.
âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó (not £çð¨îó) ò¨îÃðð×ð ÒîðÀÿ Àðâðó `The boy tore up his book`.
£çðÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (not £çð¨÷î) Øððýá çð÷ ¨îèð `He told his brother`.
Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐð÷ (not Ùð÷Ü÷) ³ðÜ ¸ððÃðð èõü `I am going home`.
ÃðôÙð ¡ÑðÐðð (not ÃðôÙèðÜð) ¨îðÙð ¨îÜð÷ `You do your work`.
£çð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó (not £çð¨îó)ò¨îÃðð×ð òÙðâð ±ðýá `He found his book`.
ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð (not £çð¨îð) Ñðð¿ ÑðÁÿÐðð èø Ram has to read his lesson.`
£çð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (not £çð¨÷î) Øððýá çð÷ ÑðÃðð µðâðð `he came to know from his brother`.
But £çð÷ £çð¨÷î Øððýá Ðð÷ ×ðÃððÚðð `his brother told him` where £çð÷ is not the subject but the object.

Note the difference-

Ùðøü £çðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `I met him at my house`. (Subject Ùðøü)
Ùðøü £çðçð÷ £çð¨÷î ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `I met him at his house`. (Subject Ùðøü)
ãðè Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `he met me at his house`. (Subject ãðè)
ãðè Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `he met me at my house`. (Subject ãðè)

(For further discussion, see

¡ÑðÐðð (reflexive, like Ãð÷Üð, Ùð÷Üð, ÃðôÙèðÜð, £çð¨îð etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer``), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with Ðð÷, or çð÷ (in Passive Voice), or with ¨îð÷ (266-70).

In the direct case and oblique with Ðð÷, the logical subject is identical with the grammatical: Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃðð èõü, ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð:

A logical subject in the oblique with ¨îð÷ or çð÷ is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object:

Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (Ùðô»ð÷) ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¡µ¶ð âð±ðÃðð èø,

Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð Ððèóü èð÷Ãðð.

In all the four sentences, ¡ÑðÐðð has replaced Ùð÷Üð because Ùðøü (the person referred to by Ùð÷Üð) is the logical subject in all the four.

But in a sentence like Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá Ðð÷ ¨îèð, Ùð÷Ü÷ cannot be replaced by ¡ÑðÐð÷ because Øððýá is the subject here and not Ùðøü.

See ¡ÑðÐðð is sometimes used for denoting ÃðôÙèðÜð (or Ãð÷Üð)=+èÙððÜð (or Ùð÷Üð) in such sentences as:-

Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ÑðÐðð èó èø `this house is ours (yours and mine)», where the person spoken to is included in ¡ÑðÐðð either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone).

A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility`` is achieved by saying Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ðÑð¨îð èó èø for Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð Ùð÷Üð èø.).

However, ¡ÑðÐðð is used as an intensifying Adjective (=own) qualifying the ¨îð or Üð forms which it invariably follows: ÜðÙð ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðð ³ðÜ Ram`s own house,» Ùð÷Üó ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `my own book`, ÃðôÙèðÜ÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îÑðÀÿ÷ `your own clothes` etc.

(a) Adjectives ending in ¡ð (including Possessive Adjectives change to ýá when qualifiying a Feminine Nown in any case or number:

¡µ¶ð âðÀÿ¨îð `a good boy`, but ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿ¨îó `a good girl`; ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿò¨îÚððü, ¡µ¶ÿó âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷, ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷, similarly Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùð÷ü, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ðð÷ü Ùð÷ü etc.

The ¡ð changes to ¦ when the Adjective is qualifying a Masculine Noun either in the oblique form or in the Plural (Direct Oblique) : ¡µ¶÷ÿ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷, ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î `good boys`, ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýáû ` my brothers`, Ùð÷Ü÷ ØððýüÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc. A few A¡ð - Adjectives are excepted from this rule: çðãðð `one and a quarter`, ×ðòÁÿÚðð`of superior quality`, ³ðò¾Úðð `of inferior quality`, £ÙðÇð `nice`, Çôò®ðÚðð `unhappy, unfortunate`. All the other Adjectives (âððâð `red`, ØððÜó `heavy` etc.) remain unchanged: âððâð ¨îÑðÀÿð (masc.) `red cloth`, âððâð ¨îÑðÀÿ÷, `red cloths`, âððâð çððÀÿó `red sari`. Case-signs are attached only to the Nouns, the Adjective having only the oblique form: ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá çð÷, èÙððÜ÷ äðèÜ Ùð÷ü, £çð ¡ðÇÙðó çð÷, Ùðô©Ãð ÇóÐð ÑðÜ, èÙð ±ðÜó×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ but See:- Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns ×ðÀÿð÷ü Ðð÷, ¶ð÷¾ð÷ü çð÷, ýÃðÐð÷ çð÷, ¦¨î Ðð÷, µððÜ Ðð÷, ×ðèôÃðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ¶ð÷ò¾Úðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ×ðôÜó çð÷; ¡ÑðÐðð used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¨ôî¶., however, does not change: ¨ôî¶ Ùð÷ü (Plural).

(a) attached to the oblique form of a Noun or a Pronoun denotes `like`, which then functions as an Adjective :

±ððÚð-çðð cow-like`, ¨ôîÄð÷-çðð `dog-like`, Ùðô»ð-çðð `me-like`, ÃðôÙð-çðð `you-like`,

£Ðð-çðð `them-like`.

The çðð of these Adjectives changes in the oblique and the Feminine like ordinary ¡ð-Adjectives.

(b) çðð is attached also to an Adjective and

either denotes `looking, seeming`:

âððâð-çðð `red-looking`, ¤ûµðð-çðð
Ñðð±ðâð-çðð `mad-looking`, ×ðÀÿð-çðð
Çô×ðâðð-çðð `weak-looking`, ±ðð÷Üð-çðð `fair-looking`.

or (ii) çðð intensifies when used with quantitative Adjectives:

×ðèôÃð-çðð `a great deal`, Æðð÷Àÿð-çðð `just a little`.

¦¨î-çðð denotes `similar`.

These çðð Adjectives when qualifying a Noun in Plural or in the oblique form or a Feminine Noun (Singular or Plural, Direct or Oblique) change both the elements in accordance with the general rule. See:- (a) attached to the oblique form of a Noun or a Pronoun denotes `like`, which then functions as an Adjective :

±ððÚð-çðð cow-like`, ¨ôîÄð÷-çðð `dog-like`, Ùðô»ð-çðð `me-like`, ÃðôÙð-çðð `you-like`,

£Ðð-çðð `them-like`.

The çðð of these Adjectives changes in the oblique and the Feminine like ordinary ¡ð-Adjectives.

çðð is also added to the ¨îð or Üð or Ððð forms for denoting similarity if quality, possession etc.:

×ðÐÇÜ ¨îð-çðð Ùðôüè `a face like that of a monkey`,
±ðÏð÷ ¨îó-çðó ¡ðãððºð `a voice like that of an ass`.
£çð¨÷î-çð÷ ¨îÑðÀÿ÷ `clothes similar to his`,
Ùð÷Üó-çðó Ððð¨î `a nose like mine`,
¡ÑðÐðð-çðð Ùðôüè âð÷¨îÜ Üè ±ðÚðð `was abashed`.

Note that both ¨îð,Üð, Ððð and çðð are affected by Gender, Number and Case.

çðð with ¨îð÷ýá and ¨îðøÐð denotes `any one` and `which one`, respectively: ¨îð÷ýá-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `any book`, ¨îðøÐð-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `which book?` çðð with ¨îð÷ýá and ¨îðøÐð denotes `any one` and `which one`, respectively: ¨îð÷ýá-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `any book`, ¨îðøÐð-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `which book?` `Degree of qualities etc. are usually denoted with the help of the Case-sign çð÷ attached to the Noun or Pronoun (in oblique form) with which comparison is made. See:- The Indirect Objects (which are usually persons) of the Verbs meaning `to tell, say, ask for, beg, demand, claim, request`:

Øððýá Ðð÷ ÜðÙð çð÷ ¨îèð ò¨î ........`brother told Ram that.........`;
¨îðÐÃðð Ðð÷ Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð .........`Kanta said to mother..........`;
ÙðøüÐð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î çð÷ Ñðô¶ð..........`I asked the boy...........`;
Ðððø¨îÜ Ùðô»ðçð÷ ÝÑðÚðð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø....`the servant asks me for a rupee`.

ÜðÙð çð÷ ¶ð÷¾ð `younger than Ram`,
çð×ð çð÷ £ûµðð `higher than all, highest`,

Ùð÷ü is similarly used (in the ``selective`` sense) for denoting superiority of one out of two or more. See Manner: -

ÏÚððÐð çð÷ çðôÐðð÷ `listen with attention (attentively)»;
ÃðôÙð çðÜâðÃðð çð÷ ÑðÁÿ âðð÷±ð÷ `you will be able to read (it) with ease (easily)»;
ãðè ¨îò¿ÐðÃðð çð÷ ¡ð ÑððÚðð `he was able to come wih some difficulty`.

Çð÷Ððð÷ü Ùð÷ü ×ðÀÿó `bigger of the two`,
çð×ðÙð÷ü ¡µ¶ð, also çð×ðçð÷ ¡µ¶ð `best of all`.

In literarry Hindi, the phrase ¨îó ¡Ñð÷êðð may be substitued for çð÷.

ÜðÙð ¨îó ¡Ñð÷êðð ¶ð÷¾ð `younger as compared to Ram`.

The words ¸ÚððÇð or ¡òÏð¨î `more` and ¨îÙð `less` may be prefixed to Adjectives for denoting comparison :

âðð÷è÷ çð÷ ¸ÚððÇð (¨îÙð) ò¾¨îð¤ `more (less) durable than iron`,
Òõîâð çð÷ ¡òÏð¨î ¨îð÷Ùðâð `more delicate than flower`.
¸ÚððÇð, ¡òÏð¨î and ¨îÙð can also be used independently for denoting `more` or `less` in number or in quantity:
Ççð çð÷ ¸ÚððÇð (¨îÙð) `more (less) than ten`; ¦¨î ÙðÐð çð÷ ¡òÏð¨î (¨îÙð) `more (less) than a maund`.
¨îÙð-çð÷-¨îÙð `at least` and ¡òÏð¨î-çð÷-¡òÏð¨î `at the most` are used as Adverbs for which se App. III 5 (i).
×ðÁÿ ¨îÜ `superior to` and ³ð¾ ¨îÜ `inferior to` are similarly used.

Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns ×ðÀÿð÷ü Ðð÷, ¶ð÷¾ð÷ü çð÷, ýÃðÐð÷ çð÷, ¦¨î Ðð÷, µððÜ Ðð÷, ×ðèôÃðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ¶ð÷ò¾Úðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ×ðôÜó çð÷; ¡ÑðÐðð used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¨ôî¶., however, does not change: ¨ôî¶ Ùð÷ü (Plural). (a) Two sets of Adjectives derived from pronouns may particularly be noted- denoting quality ¦÷çðð `of this kind` (from Úðè), ãðøçðð `of that kind` (from ãðè), ¨øîçðð `of what kind` (from ¨îðøÐð-©Úðð), ¸ðøçðð `of which kind` (Relative from ¸ðð÷), Ãðøçðð `of that kind` (from çðð÷, archaic). Compare çðð forms.

(ii) denoting quantity -

ýÃðÐðð `this much` (from Úðè),
£ÃðÐðð `that much` (from ãðè),
ò¨îÃðÐðð `how much` (from©Úðð),
ò¸ðÃðÐðð `as much (Relative from ¸ðð÷).

The Plurals of ýÃðÐðð etc. may denote Number: ýÃðÐð÷ ¡ðÇÙðó `so many men`, ò¨îÃðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü `how many books?`, ò¨îÃðÐð÷ Òîâð `how many fruits?`

All these are affected by Gender and Case like ¡ð-ending Adjectives, and may be used also as Nouns. (for corresponding Adverbs, see :- The pronominal Adverbs, like the pronominal Adjectives (137) are derived from Demonstrative, Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. These are:- ¡×ð `now`, Úðèðû `here`, ýÏðÜ `hither`, Úðð÷ü `thus` (from Úðè); - - ãðèðû `there`, £ÏðÜ `thither`, (from ãðè); ¸ð×ð `when`, ¸ðèðû `where`, ò¸ðÏðÜ `whither`, ¸Úðð÷ü `as` (from ¸ðð÷); ¨î×ð `when?`, ¨îèðû `where`, ò¨îÏðÜ `whither?`, ©Úðð÷ü `why?` from (¨îðøÐð); Ãð×ð `then`, Ãðèðû `there`, òÃðÏðÜ `thither`, ÃÚðð÷ü `so, in the same way` (from çðð÷). Ãðèðùü and òÃðÏðÜ (except in proverbs) are archaic or dialectic and as such should not be used. The other two Adverbs derived from çðð÷ [ the archaic correlative Pronoun 110 (iii), viz. Ãð×ð and ÃÚðð÷ü] are affiliated to ãðè (so that the second series in the above list would be Ãð×ð, ãðèðû £ÏðÜ ÃÚðð÷ü). Note that ©Úðð÷ü does not mean `how`. The word for `how` is ¨øîçð÷ (287), or ©Úðð÷ü ¨îÜ (ðܵðèðòµð 285-1).

Of the Pronominal adverbs listed above:

(a) ¡×ð, ¸ð×ð, ¨î×ð and Ãð×ð are Adverbs of Time;
(b) Úðèðû, ¸ðèðû ¨îèðû and ãðèûð are Adverbs of Place;
(c) ýÏðÜ, ò¸ðÏðÜ, ò¨îÏðÜ and £ÏðÜ are Adverbs of Direction;
(d) Úðð÷ü, ¸Úðð÷ü, ©Úðð÷ü (¨îÜ) and ÃÚðð÷ü are Adverbs of Manner

The Present and Past Participles (See :-Participles are verbal adjectives qualifying noun (or pronoun) but retaining some properties of verbs. Hindi has two kinds of Participles, Present and Past.

(a) Formation of Present and Past Participles has already been explained in 185 and 195:

etc. are Present Participles.

etc. are Past Participles.

Both the Participles are affected by the Gender, the Number, and the Case of the Nouns or Pronouns which they qualify. µðâðÃðð, µðâðð are Masc. sg., µðâðÃð, µðâð÷; Masc. pl., µðâðÃðó and µðâðó Fem. sg. or pl. The oblique forms for Masc. sg. and pl. is also µðâðÃð, µðâð÷; Fem. forms remain unchanged in the oblique.) are Adjectives, derived from verbs: ×ðèÃðð ÑððÐðó `flowing water`, ×ðóÃð÷ òÇÐð `past days`. Adjectives may, of course, be used as parts of Predicate and undergo the usual changes the usual changes due to Gender, Number and Case:

±ððÀÿó ®ðÀÿó ¨îÜð÷ `stop the carriage.`
âðÀÿ¨÷î ¡µ¶÷ÿ èøü `the boys are good`,

But if an Adjective is used as a predicative word referring to an object which has ¨îð÷, it (the Adjective) remains unchanged. See :- The Object of a Verb in the neutral Construction (174 (c)];

ÜðÙð Ðð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð `Ram saw the boy`,
Øððýá Ðð÷ ×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð `the brother called the sister`;
ÑðÃÆðÜð÷ü ¨îð÷ Ò÷üî¨î òÇÚðð ±ðÚðð `the stones were thrown away`;
ýÐð Ùð¨îðÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ò±ðÜð òÇÚðð ¸ðð¦ `let these houses be demolished`. and

The Object of a Verb requiring a predicative word (referring to the object):

ãðè òÐðÏðáÐðÃðð ¨îð÷ ÑððÑð ÙððÐðÃðð èø `he regards poverty as a sin`;
ò¨îÃðð×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ±ðÐÇð ÙðÃð ¨îÜð÷ `do not make the books dirty`;
ãðè Üççðó ¨îð÷ çððüÑð çðÙð»ðÃðð èø `he takes the rope to be a snake`.

±ððÀÿó ¨îð÷ ®ðÀÿð ¨îÜð÷ `stop the carriage`,
âð¨îÀÿó ¨îð÷ ¨îðâðð Üû±ðð÷ `paint the wood black`;
ò¨îÃðð×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ±ðÐÇð ÙðÃð ¨îÜð÷ `do not make the books dirty`.

The words ¡òÃð, ¡Ãðóãð, ¡ÃÚðÐÃð, ×ðèôÃð, ×ðÀÿð, Ùðèð etc. prefixed to an Adjective (of quality) denote `very, extremely`:

¡òÃð ªõîÜ `very cruel`, ¡Ãðóãð Çô:®ðÇ `extremely painful`, ¡ÃÚðÐÃð çðôÐÇÜ `extremely` beautiful`, ×ðèôÃð ¶ð÷¾ð `very small, or young`, ×ðÀÿð ØððÜó `very heavy`, ÙðèðØðÚððÐð¨î `extremely fearful`:

¡òÃð ªõîÜ `very cruel`, ¡Ãðóãð Çô:®ðÇ `extremely painful`, ¡ÃÚðÐÃð çðôÐÇÜ `extremely` beautiful`, ×ðèôÃð ¶ð÷¾ð `very small, or young`, ×ðÀÿð ØððÜó `very heavy`, ÙðèðØðÚððÐð¨î `extremely fearful`.

The Sanskrit comparative and superlative endings ÃðÜ and ÃðÙð are usually attached to only Tatsama Adjectives for denoting more, very, extremely, highly etc.

¨îò¿ÐðÃðÜ `more difficult`, òÑßÚðÃðÙð `very dear, dearest, darling`.

CHAPTER XX

Numerals are Adjectives indicating Number. They may be Cardinal, Ordinal, or Multiplicative.

Cardinals are used for counting : ¦¨î Òîâð `one fruit`, Çð÷ ³ðð÷Àÿ÷ `two horses`, ÃðóÐð ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü `three books,» çððø ¡ðÇÙðó `a hundred men`.

Ordinals are used for denoting `position or order in a series`. Ñðèâðð Ñðð¿ `the first lesson`, ÇõçðÜó ò¨îÃðð×ð `the second book`, ÃðóçðÜð ³ðÜ `the thrid house`.

Multiplicatives indicate multiplication : Çô±ðôÐðð `double`, Çð÷èÜð `two-fold`, Ççð ±ðôÐðð `ten-fold`, çððø±ðôÐðð `hundred-fold`.

The Hindi Cardinals are as follows :

¦¨î one Çð÷ two
ÃðóÐð three µððÜ four
Ñððûµð five ¶ÿ: six
çððÃð seven ¡ð¿ eight
Ðððø nine Ççð ten
±ÚððÜè eleven ×ððÜè twelve
Ãð÷Üè thirteen µððøÇè fourteen
ÑðÐÍè fifteen çðð÷âðè sixteen
çðëðè seventeen ¡¾þ¿ðÜè eighteen
£ÐÐðóçð nineteen ×ðóçð twenty
ý©¨îóçð twenty-one ×ððýáçð twenty-two
Ãð÷ýáçð twenty-three µððø×ðóçð twenty-four
çðÄððýáçð twenty-seven ¡¾þ¿ðýáçð twenty-eight
£ÐÃðóçð (£ÐðÄðóçð) twenty-nine Ãðóçð thirty
ý¨îÃðóçð thirty-one ×ðÄðóçð thirty-two
ÃðøüÃðóçð thirty-three µððøüÃðóçð thirty-four
ÑðøüÃðóçð thirty-five ¶Äðóçð thirty-six
çðøüÃðóçð thirty-seven ¡ÀÿÃðóçð thirty-eight
£ÐÃððâðóçð thirty-nine µððâðóçð forty
ý¨îÃððâðóçð forty-one ×ðÚððâðóçð forty-two
ÃðøüÃððâðóçð forty-three µðãððâðóçð forty-four
ÑðøüÃððâðóçð forty-five ¶Úððâðóçð forty-six
çðøüÃððâðóçð forty-seven ¡ÀÿÃððâðóçð forty-eight
£Ðµððçð forty-nine Ñðµððçð fifty
ý©ÚððãðÐð fifty-one ×ððãðÐð fifty-two
òÃðÜÑðÐð (ëð÷ÑðÐð) fifty-three µððøãðÐð fifty-four
ÑðµðÑðÐð fifty-five ¶ÑÑðÐð fifty-six
çðÃÃððãðÐð fifty-seven ¡¿þ¿ðãðÐð fifty-eight
£Ðçð¿ fifty-nine çðð¿ sixty
ý¨îçð¿ sixty-one ×ððçð¿ sixty-two
òÃðÜçð¿ (ëð÷çð¿) sixty-three µððøüçð¿ sixty-four
Ñðøüçð¿ sixty-five ò¶Úððçð¿ sixty-six
çðÀÿçð¿ sixty-seven ¡Àÿçð¿ sixty-eight
£ÐðèÄðÜ sixty-nine çðÄðÜ seventy
ý¨îèÄðÜ seventy-one ×ðèÄðÜ seventy-two
òÃðèÄðÜ seventy-three µððøèÄðÜ seventy-four
ÑðµðèÄðÜ (Ñð-) seventy-five ò¶èÄðÜ seventy-six
çðÃðèÄðÜ (çðÃðÄðÜ) seventy-seven ¡¿èÄðÜ seventy-eight
£Ðððçðó (£ÐÚððçðó) seventy-nine ¡ççðó eighty
ý©Úððçðó eighty-one ×ðÚððçðó eighty-two
òÃðÜðçðó eighty-three µððøÜðçðó eighty-four
Ñðµððçðó eighty-five ò¶Úððçðó eighty-six
çðÃððçðó eighty-seven ¡¿ðçðó eighty-eight
Ððãððçðó eighty-nine Ðð××ð÷ ninety
ý©ÚððÐðãð÷ ninety-one ×ððÐðãð÷ ninety -two
òÃðÜðÐðãð÷ ninety -three µððøÜðÐðãð÷ ninety-four
ÑðµððÐðãð÷ ninety-five ò¶ÚððÐðãð÷ ninety-six
çðÄððÐðãð÷ ninety-seven ¡¾þ¿ðÐðãð÷ (¾þ¿) ninety-eigh
òÐðãÚððÐðãð÷ ninety-nine çððø hundre
äðõÐÚð zero (¦¨î) çððø (one)hundred
Çð÷ çððø two hundred è¸ððÜ thousand
âðð®ð hundred thousand Ççð âðð®ÿð million
¨îÜð÷Àÿ ten million ¡Ü×ðÿ thousand million
®ðÜ×ð hundred billion

(i) ¶: `six` is also written as ¶è. However, ¶÷ÿ or ¶ø approximates the current Hindi pronunciation of the word.

Above `hundred`, the numbers proceed regularly:

¦¨î çððø ¦¨î 101, ¦¨î çððø Çð÷ 102,

ÃðóÐð çððø µððÜ 304 Ñððûµð è¸ððÜ Çð÷ çððø Ñðµµðóçð 5225 etc.

Note:- There is no change in the form of the above numerals due to Gender or Case. As for Number, obviously, ¦¨î is Singular and the rest are Plural by nature,

(a) Nouns denoting measure, weight etc., when preceded by a numeral or by an Adjective denoting indefinite number: (153), are used as Adjectives (of quantity) :

Çð÷ ±ðºð ¨îÑðÀÿð `two yards of cloth`;
ÃðóÐð ÙðÐð ¡Ððð¸ð `three maunds of grain`;
¦¨î ±ððÀÿó ýáÏðÐð `a cart-load of fuel`;
¨îýá çð÷Ü ÇõÏð `several seers of milk`;
¦¨î ò±ðâððçð ÑððÐðó `a glass of water`,
Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ µððÚð `two cups of tea`.

See:- (a) Masculine Nouns signifying duration attach the special ending-¡ð÷ü for denoting a large but indefinite Number : ×ðÜçð `year` ×ðÜçðð÷ü `several years`; ÙðèóÐðð `month` `several months`. This ¡ð÷ü is really a numerical ending.

All the modifications that a Noun undergoes with regared to Number and Case (Direct or Oblique) can be tabulated as follows -

DIRECT OBLIQUE

Sg. Pl Sg. Pl.

1. Masc. - ¡ð Nouns -- ¦- ¦- ¡ð÷ü
2. Masc. -.other nouns -- -- -- ««
3. Fem,-ý, ýá and Úðð Nouns -- ¡ðû- -- ««
4. Fem.-.other Nouns -- ¦û- -- ««

or thus:-

SINGULAR PLURAL

Direct Oblique Direct Oblique

1. Masc.- ¡ð Nouns --.. ¦ ¦.. ..¡ð÷ü
2. Masc.-other Nouns --.. -.. .. ««
3. Fem,-ý, ýá and Úðð Nouns --.. -.. ¡ûð.. ««
4. Fem.-.other Nouns --.. -.. ¦û ««

See:

A large but indefinite number is denoted by ÇòçðÚðð÷ü `tens`, ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü `twenties, scores`, ÑðµµðóòçðÚðð÷ü, Ñðµððçðð÷ü, çðøü¨îÀð÷ü, è¸ððÜð÷ü, âðð®ðð÷ü, ¨îÜð÷Àÿð÷ü, (but Ãðóçðð÷ü, µððâðóçðð÷ü çðð¿ð÷ü etc. are not used).

These forms which may be called `Multitudinous`, are not affected by Gender and Case. Notice the difference between Ççðð÷ü and ÇòçðÚðð÷ü, ×ðóçðð÷ü and ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü etc. Ççðð÷ü denotes `several tens`, ×ðóçðð÷ü denotes `all twenty`, ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü denotes `several scores`.

Nouns signifying duration, and those signifying measure, weight etc. assume similar forms when a large and indefinite number or quantity is denoted (83). This ¡ð÷ü may be regarded as the obliquePlural sign used for the direct Plural (93).

ÙðèóÐðð÷ü ×ðóÃð ±ð¦ `a number of months passed`.
×ðÜçðð÷ü èð÷ ±ðÚð÷ `a number of years elapsed`.
ÙðÐðð÷ü ÇõÏð `maunds and maunds of milk`,
±ððòÀÿÚðð÷ü ¡Ððð¸ð `cart-loads of grain`,
¾ð÷¨îòÜÚðð÷ü Òîâð `basketfuls of fruits`,
ÙðÐðð÷ü, ±ððòÀÿÚðð÷ü and ¾ð÷¨îòÜÚðð÷ü are, obviously, adjectival.

But all these Nouns can have only the direct Plural form when preceded by a numeral or by an Adjective denoting an indefinite number. Thus ÃðóÐð ÙðèóÐð÷, ¨îýá ×ðÜçð. Nouns denoting measure etc., when preceded by a numeral, from their Plural in accordance with 145-b: Çð÷ ÙðÐð ÇõÏð, ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ¡Ððð¸ð etc.

Nouns denoting measure, weight etc. similarly attach ¡ð÷ü for expressing a large but indefinite quantity: ÙðÐðð÷ü ¡Ððð¸ð `maunds and maunds of grain`; Á÷Üð÷ü Òîâð `heaps and heaps of fruits`; ±ððòÀÿÚðð÷ü âð¨îÀÿó `cartloads of firewood`, etc. ÙðÐðð÷ü, etc. are in such cases, used as Adjectives (156).

It is to be noted that in the Singular Oblique forms, there is only one change - ¡ð to ¦, occurring in Masc. In the Plural, all Oblique forms have ¡ð÷ü. The Direct Plural has ¡ð÷ü [ in Fem. ý, ýá and Úðð Nouns, -¦û (in the remaining Fem.)]. See, however, 83 where, as a special case, ¡ð÷ü is iattached for forming an apparently Direct Plural.

The Positions or Case-Signs are treated in Chapter VI.

See:

A numeral + a noun denoting measure, weight etc. is treated as an Adjective also as regards the change of form due to Number and Case (but not Gender). Thus,

Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð `two cups of milk`, ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð `three basketfuls of mangoes`, (ÑÚððâð÷: Masc. Pl. and ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷: Masc. Pl. like ¡µ¶÷: Masc. Pl. like ¡µ¶÷: Masc. Pl. (127-b); but Çð÷ ÑÚððâðó ÇõÏð, ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ýáüÏðÐð (like ¡µ¶ó Fem. Plural:127-b, not ÑÚððòâðÚððû, ±ððòÀÿÚððû like âðÀÿò¨îÚððû). Also, Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð Ùð÷ü (not....ÑÚððâðð÷ü ....), ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð çð÷ (not ....¾ð÷¨îÜð÷ü....): like ¡µ¶÷ Masc. Pl. in the oblique. However, when collective sense is intended, the Nouns retain the singular form: ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜð ¡ðÙð, Çð÷ ×ðó³ðð ¸ðÙðóÐð etc.

A numeral + a noun denoting measure, weight etc. is treated as an Adjective also as regards the change of form due to Number and Case (but not Gender). Thus,

Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð `two cups of milk`, ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð `three basketfuls of mangoes`, (ÑÚððâð÷: Masc. Pl. and ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷: Masc. Pl. like ¡µ¶÷: Masc. Pl. like ¡µ¶÷: Masc. Pl. (127-b); but Çð÷ ÑÚððâðó ÇõÏð, ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ýáüÏðÐð (like ¡µ¶ó Fem. Plural:127-b, not ÑÚððòâðÚððû, ±ððòÀÿÚððû like âðÀÿò¨îÚððû). Also, Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð Ùð÷ü (not....ÑÚððâðð÷ü ....), ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð çð÷ (not ....¾ð÷¨îÜð÷ü....): like ¡µ¶÷ Masc. Pl. in the oblique. However, when collective sense is intended, the Nouns retain the singular form: ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜð ¡ðÙð, Çð÷ ×ðó³ðð ¸ðÙðóÐð etc.

Some of the regular numerals are replaced by Collective Adjectives (which are, in fact, Nouns of the same type as those referred to in 145 above). Thus ¸ðð÷Àÿð or ¸ðð÷Àÿó `pair`=Çð÷, µððø¨îÀÿð = µððÜ, Ñðü¸ðð = Ñððûµð, ¶©¨îð = ¶è, ǸðáÐð = dozen = ×ððÜè, ×ðóçðó or ¨îð÷Àÿó=×ðóçð=`score; çðøü¨îÀÿð = çððø. These are treated as Nouns and may be qualified by the regular numerals: Çð÷ ¸ðð÷Àÿ÷ (or ¸ðð÷Àÿð) `two pairs` = four, ÃðóÐð µððø¨îÀÿ÷ `three fours` = 12, Ñððûµð ǸðáÐð `five dozens` = 60, Ççð ×ðóçðó `ten scores` = 200, etc.

çðøü¨îÀÿð is also used in the sense of `per hundred` or `per cent`:¡ðÙð Ççð ÝÑðÚð÷ çðøü¨îÀÿð ò×ð¨îÃð÷ èø `mangoes are sold at ten Rupees per hundred`,ÃðóÐð ÝÑðÚð÷ çðøü¨îÀÿð çðõÇ `interest at three Rupees per cent`.Note:- In accordance with 145 (b), ¸ðð÷Àÿð, µððø¨îÀÿð and çðøü¨îÀÿð (which are Masc.) may or may not change to ¸ðð÷Àÿ÷, µððø¨îÀÿ÷, and çðøü¨îÀÿ÷ in the plural. Ñðü¸ðð and ¶©¨îð, however, change regularly to Ñðü¸ð÷ and ¶©¨÷î. ¸ðð÷Àÿó, ×ðóçðó and ¨îð÷Àÿó being Feminine, remain unchanged.

Fractions are expressed as follows :-

1/4 = ¦¨î ×ð¾÷ µððÜ (one divided by four).or Ñððãð (used mainly for denoting weights):
Ñððãð (çð÷Ü) = 1/4 seer,
or µððøÆððýá (or µððøÆðð Øðð±ð `quarter`).
1/3 = ¦¨î ×ð¾÷ ÃðóÐð or òÃðèðýá (or ÃðóçðÜð Øðð±ð) `one-third`.
1/2 = ¦¨î ×ð¾÷ Çð÷ or ¡ðÏðð `half`.
3/4 = ÃðóÐð ×ð¾÷ µððÜ or ÑððøÐð `three quarters`.
1/5 = ¦¨î ×ð¾÷ Ñððûµð or Ñððûµðãððû Øðð±ð `a fifth`.
1/4 = ¦¨î çðèó ¦¨î ×ð¾÷ µððÜ or çðãðð `one and a quarter`.
1/2 = ¦¨î çðèó ¦¨î ×ð¾÷ Çð÷ or À÷üÁÿ `one and a half`.
1/2 = Çð÷ çðèó ¦¨î ×ð¾÷ Çð÷ or Áðýá `two and a half`.
3/4 = ¦¨î çðèó ÃðóÐð ×ð¾÷ µððÜ or ÑððøÐð÷ Çð÷ `two less by a quarter`.
3/4 = Çð÷ çðèó ÃðóÐð ×ð¾÷ µððÜ or ÑððøÐð÷ ÃðóÐð `three less by a quarter`.
1/4 = Çð÷ çðèó ¦¨î ×ð¾÷ µððÜ or çðãðð Çð÷ `two and a quarter`.
çððÁÿ÷....`and a half` is attached to three, four and above.
çððÁÿ÷ ÃðóÐð `three and a half`, çððÁÿ÷ µððÜ `four and a half` etc
The system of denoting fractions is used also in denoting fractions of hundred, thousasnd, ten thousand, ten million and thousand million. Thus,
çðãðð çððø = 125 (literally `a hundred and its quarter`),
À÷Áÿ çððø = 150 (`a hundred and its half`), Áÿðýá çððø = 250
(`two hundred + half a hundread`), À÷Áÿ è¸ððÜ = 1,500,
çðãðð Çð÷ âðð®ðó = 2,25,000, Áðýá ¨îÜð÷Àÿ = 2,50,00,000,
çððÁÿ÷ µððÜ è¸ððÜ = 4,500.

¨îð÷ýá, âð±ðØð±ð or ÑßðÚð: placed before a numeral or ¦¨î placed after it denotes approximation:
¨îð÷ýá Ñðµððçð (Ñðµððçð÷¨î) ¡ðÇÙðó `about fifty persons` [111 (iii)and 287 (d)]
âð±ðØð±ð Ñððûµð çððø ¨îó ØðóÀÿ `a crowd of about five hundred`,
ÑßðÚð: Çð÷ çððø ãðæðá èô¦ `about two hundred years ago`,
¨îð÷ýá µððâðóçð (µððâðóçð÷¨î) âðÀÿ¨÷î ¡ð¦ èøü `about forty boys have come`,
Certain pairs of numerals also denote approximation (App. III 5-C) :

Çð÷-¦¨î `one or two`, Çð÷-ÃðóÐð, ÃðóÐð-µððÜ, µððÜ-Ñððûµð, Ñððûµð-¶: etc.
Ççð -Ñððüµð, Ççð-×ðóçð, Ççð-ÑðÐ͸ð, ×ðóçð-Ñðµµðóçð, ×ðóçð-Ãðóçð, Ãðóçð-ÑðøüÃðóçð, Ãðóçð-µððâðóçð-ÑðøüÃððâðóçð, µððâðóçð-Ñðµððçð, Ñðµððçð-ÑðµðÑðÐð, Ñðµððçð-çðð¿.
çððø-çðãðð-çððø, çððø-À÷Áÿ çððø, çððø-Çð÷ çððø, Çð÷ Áðýá çððø, Çð÷-ÃðóÐð çððø.

¡¨÷îâðð and ¦¨îð¨îó both meaning `lonely, single`, and Çô¨÷îâðð meaning `not alone, not lonely, companioned (by one person)» are noteworthy.

¡ðÏðð, ¡¨÷îâðð and Çô¨÷îâðð are affected by Gender, Number and Case like ordinary ¡ð-ending Adjectives:

¡ðÏðó, ¡ðÏð÷, ¡¨÷îâðó, ¡¨÷îâð÷, Çô¨÷îâðó, Çô¨÷îâð÷ etc.

¦¨îð¨îó has ¦¨îðò¨îÐðó in Feminine. çðøü¨îÀÿð changes to çðøü¨îÀÿ÷ in Plural and Oblique.

The following Adjectives denote indefinite number:

¨ôî¶ `some, a few` (also quantity `a little`) (111-ii).
×ðèôÃð `many, a large number` (also quantity `much, a great deal`).
×ðèôÃð-çð÷ `a good many, several`.See:- çðð intensifies when used with quantitative Adjectives:
×ðèôÃð-çðð `a great deal, Æðð÷Àð-çðð `just a little, Æðð÷Àÿ÷ `a few`.
ÆððÀÿÿ÷-çð÷ `only a few`. See:- çðð intensifies when used with quantitative Adjectives:
×ðèôÃð-çðð `a great deal, Æðð÷Àð-çðð `just a little,
¨îýá `many, several`.
¨îýá ¦¨î `several`.
çð×ð `all`,
çðØðó `all` (emphatic).
çððÜ÷ `all`.
¡ðøÜ `more, additional`.

A numeral repeated denotes `...........at a time` or `........per piece, per head, per day` etc.:

Çð÷-Çð÷ âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷ ¡ðÐð÷ Çð÷ `let two boys come at a time`.
¦¨î ¦¨î âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ ÃðóÐð-ÃðóÐð Òîâð Çð÷ `give three fruits to each boy`.
¦¨î-¦¨î ¡ðÙð Çð÷-Çð÷ ¡ðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü òÙðâðÃðð èø `mangoes are selling two annas a piece`.
But ¦¨î-¦¨î means also `all, every one, each one`:
Ùðøü ¦¨î-¦¨î ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ð âðõü±ðð `I will see each one (of you)!,

¡ð÷ü attached to a numeral denotes aggregation. In case of Çð÷, Ððð÷ü instead of ¡ð÷ü is attached:

Çð÷Ððð÷ü both
ÃðóÐðð÷ü all the three
µððÜð÷ü all the four
Ñððûµðð÷ü all the five
¶èð÷ü all the six
çððÃðð÷ü all the seven
¡ð¿ð÷ü all the eight
Ððãðð÷ü all the nine
Ççðð÷ü all the ten
×ðóçðð÷ü all the twenty
Ãðóçðð÷ü all the thirty.

These are not Plurals, but `aggregatives`.
These forms are not affected by Gender and Case:

âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü Ðð÷, âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷, âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü çð÷, âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc.

A large but indefinite number is denoted by ÇòçðÚðð÷ü `tens`, ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü `twenties, scores`, ÑðµµðóòçðÚðð÷ü, Ñðµððçðð÷ü, çðøü¨îÀð÷ü, è¸ððÜð÷ü, âðð®ðð÷ü, ¨îÜð÷Àÿð÷ü, (but Ãðóçðð÷ü, µððâðóçðð÷ü çðð¿ð÷ü etc. are not used).

These forms which may be called `Multitudinous`, are not affected by Gender and Case. Notice the difference between Ççðð÷ü and ÇòçðÚðð÷ü, ×ðóçðð÷ü and ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü etc. Ççðð÷ü denotes `several tens`, ×ðóçðð÷ü denotes `all twenty`, ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü denotes `several scores`.

Nouns signifying duration, and those signifying measure, weight etc. assume similar forms when a large and indefinite number or quantity is denoted (83). This ¡ð÷ü may be regarded as the obliquePlural sign used for the direct Plural (93).

ÙðèóÐðð÷ü ×ðóÃð ±ð¦ `a number of months passed`.
×ðÜçðð÷ü èð÷ ±ðÚð÷ `a number of years elapsed`.
ÙðÐðð÷ü ÇõÏð `maunds and maunds of milk`,
±ððòÀÿÚðð÷ü ¡Ððð¸ð `cart-loads of grain`,
¾ð÷¨îòÜÚðð÷ü Òîâð `basketfuls of fruits`,
ÙðÐðð÷ü, ±ððòÀÿÚðð÷ü and ¾ð÷¨îòÜÚðð÷ü are, obviously, adjectival.

But all these Nouns can have only the direct Plural form when preceded by a numeral or by an Adjective denoting an indefinite number. Thus ÃðóÐð ÙðèóÐð÷, ¨îýá ×ðÜçð. Nouns denoting measure etc., when preceded by a numeral, from their Plural in accordance with 145-b: Çð÷ ÙðÐð ÇõÏð, ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ¡Ððð¸ð etc.

Ordinals: The first nine ordinals are -
Ñðèâðð `first`, ÇõçðÜð `second`,
ÃðóçðÜð `third`, µððøÆðð `fourth`,
Ñððûµðãððû `fifth`, ¶¾ð `sixth`,
çððÃðãððû `seventh` ¡ð¿ãððû `eithth`,
Ððãððû `ninth`, Ççðãððû `tenth`,
±ÚððÜèãððû `eleventh`, ×ððÜèãððû `twelfth`,
×ðóçðãððû `twentieth`, ý©¨îóçðãððû `twenty-first`,
Ñðµððçðãððû `fiftieth`, çððøãððû `hundredth`.

From seven onwards ãððû is added to numerals.
These are affected by Gender, Number and Case like ordinary

¡ð-ending Adjectives :
Ñðèâðó, Ñðèâð÷, µððøÆðó, µððøÆð÷ etc.
They can be used as Pronouns:
ÇõçðÜð `another, besides, the second`,
ÃðóçðÜð `the third.`

The Sanskrit ordinals ÑßÆðÙð `first`, òÎÃðóÚð `second`, ÃðöÃðóÚð `third` etc. are also in use, particularly in literary Hindi: ÑßÆðÙð å÷Âðó `first division`, µðÃðôÆðá ¨îêðð `fourth class` (in a school), ëðÚðð÷Çäð Ñðòܵ¶÷Ç `the thirteenth chapter` etc.

Both Sanskrit and Hindi ordinals are in use for denoting the dates of each half of the month (according to the Indian calendar).

The dates of the bright half of the month are referred to by prefixing the word äðô©âðð or by appending the word çðôÇó to the numeral. For referring to dates of the dark half, the word ¨öîæÂðð is prefixed, or the word ãðÇó appended.

The first of each half is ÑßòÃðÑðÇð (Skt.) or ÑðÀÿãðð, ÑðòÜãðð, ÑðÜãðð (Hindi). The fifteenth of the dark half (i.e. the new-moon day) is ¡ÙððãðçÚðð or ¡Ùððãðçð (Skt. ¡ÙððãðçÚðð) and of the bright half (i.e. the full-moon day) is ÑðõòÂðáÙðð, ÑðõÂðáÙððçðó (Skt.) ÑðõÜÐðÙððçðó or ÑðõÐðð÷ü. The remaining thirteen days of each half are named as follows:-

Sanskrit Hindi

2nd òÎÃðóÚðð Îø¸ð, Çõ¸ð
3rd ÃðöÃðóÚðð Ãðó¸ð
5th ÑðµðÙðó Ñððüµð÷ü
6th æðæ¿ó ¶ÿ¿
7th çðÑÃðÙðó çððÃð÷ü
8th ¡æ¾Ùðó ¡ð¿÷ü
9th ÐðãðÙðó ÐððøÙðó
10th ÇäðÙðó ÇçðÙðó
11th ¦¨îðÇäðó ¦¨îðÇçðó
12th ÎðÇäðó ÎðÇçðó
13th ëðÚðð÷Çäðó Ãð÷Üçð
14th µðÃðôÇáäðó µððøÇçð

Some of tthe Hindi names given above are only used in certain area and in others ÑðüòµðÙðó, çðòÃðÙðó, ¡òæ¾Ùðó, ÇôãððÇçðó etc. are prevalent.

Dates of the months according to the Western calendar are denoted by the regular Feminine forms of the Hindi ordinal: Ñðèâðó, ÇõçðÜó, ÃðóçðÜó etc. These are, of course, Adjectives qualifyingthe Noun ÃððÜó®ð `date` which may be implied or expressed.

Ñðèâðð denotes also `foremost` or `most important`. With reference to `age` or `era`, it may denote `by-gone` or `early`: Ñðèâð÷ Úðô±ð (or ºðÙððÐð÷) Ùð÷ü `in the early (or by-gone) age`.

For denoting relative ages of brothers, sisters etc., the following Adjectives are inuse ×ðÀÿð (×ðÀÿó) `the eldest`, Ùðû»ðâðð (Ùðû»ðâðó) `second` (only in some Hindi areas), çðûü»ðâðð (çðû»ðâðó) `the third`, ¶ð÷¾ð (¶ð÷¾ó) `the youngest`.

For denoting relative sizes, the following Adjectives are in use: ×ðÀÿð `big`, Ùðû»ðð÷âðð or Ùðû»ðâðð `middling`, ¶ð÷¾ð `small`,

For denoting position etc. the following Adjectives are used:

¡±ðâðð `fore, front`, òÑð¶ÿâðð `back, hind`, ò×ðµðâðð `middle, intermediate`

¡òÐÃðÙð `last`, ¡ðò®ÿðÜó `last, final`.

Multiplicatives are formed by attaching ±ðôÐðð (`multiplied by`) to the numerals. The numerals 2 to 8 are slightly modified: Çô±ðôÐðð, Çô±ðÐðð or ÇõÐðð `double`, òÃð±ðôÐðð `three-fold`, Ñðüµð±ðôÐðð `five -fold`, ¶ø±ðôÐðð `six -fold`, çðÃð±ðôÐðð `seven-fold`, ¡¿±ðôÐðð `eight-fold`. After ¡¿±ðôÐðð the forms are regular. Ðððø±ðôÐðð `nine-fold`, Ççð±ðôÐðð `ten-fold`, çððø±ðôÐðð `hundred-fold`.

These changes are like ordinary ¡ð -ending Adjectives in Feminine, Plural and oblique: òÃð±ðôÐðó, òÃð±ðôÐð÷ etc.

±ðôÐðð may be attached also to fractions (more than one):

çðãðð ±ðôÐðð = 1 1/4 times as much.
À÷Áÿ ±ðôÐðð = 1 1/2 times as much.
Áÿðýá ±ðôÐðð = 2 1/2 times as much.

ý¨îèÜð `single, not double or multiple, lean`, Çð÷èÜð `two-fold, stout`, and òÃðèÜð, Ãð÷èÜð `treble, three-fold`, µððøèÜð `quadruple, four-fold`, çðãððÚðð `1 1/4 times as much` and ÀþÚðð÷Áÿð ` one half as much`, are special forms. See:- èÜð See:- ý¨îèÜð `single, not double or multiple, lean`, Çð÷èÜð `two-fold, stout`, and òÃðèÜð, Ãð÷èÜð `treble, three-fold`, µððøèÜð `quadruple, four-fold`, çðãððÚðð `1 1/4 times as much` and ÀþÚðð÷Áÿð ` one half as much`, are special forms.

The pronominal Adjectives ýÃðÐðð, £ÃðÐðð, ò¨îÃðÐðð etc., when used in plural, may denote indefinite number.

See:- ýÃðÐðð `this much` (from Úðè),
£ÃðÐðð `that much` (from ãðè),
ò¨îÃðÐðð `how much` (from©Úðð),
ò¸ðÃðÐðð `as much (Relative from ¸ðð÷).

In numeration, units = ý¨îðýá, tens = Çèðýá,
hundreds=çð¨îÀÿð, thousands =è¸ððÜ etc.

The words ÑßòÃð and Õîó prefixed to a numeral denote `per`: ÑßòÃð (Õîó) çðø¨îÀÿð `per hundred`, ÑßòÃð (Õîó) è¸ððÜ `per thousand`. But ÑßÃÚð÷¨î (ÑßòÃð+¦¨î) or èÜ÷¨î (èÜ + ¦¨î) `everyone`.

(For weights, measures, names of days and months etc., see AppendixIV-3-8).

¦¨î signifies also `a certain`: ¦¨î òÇÐð `one dya`, ¦¨î ×ððÜ `once upon a time`, ¦¨î ¡ðÇÙðó `a certain man`.

CHAPTER XXI

Besides the above, there are also other Verbs which help in forming certain"Voices", "Moods" and"Tenses" of all the Verbs See :

Each Hindi Verb has a number of forms for signifying--

(1) the type or the character of the action denoted by the Verb (Terminate, Progressive, Habitual etc.);
(2) the relation of the subject to the action (acting or acted upon)
(3) the way in which the action etc. is thought of the expressed by the speaker (as a fact, a question, a command, a possibility etc); (4) the time at which the action is thought of as taking place (present, past, future etc); and
(5) the Person, Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object. Each of these is briefly discussed below.

In Hindi, a Verb is modified according to the gender number and person of either the subject, or the object, or it has reference only to the action. This gave rise to what are known as constructions.

Hindi Verbs had three constructions:- Subjectival, Objectival& Nautral

(a) In subjectival construction, the Verb has the same Number, Person and Gender as its logical object (the person or thing to whom the action is directed):

âð"ÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «the boy read the book`,
¨îÙðâðð Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ð𦠫kamala ate fruits`.
äð÷Ü ÙððÜð ±ðÚðð «the lion will be killed`,
Ùðô»ðçð÷ µððÚð Ððèóü Ñðó ¸ððÃðó «I can`t take tea`,
Úðè ¨îèð ¸ððÃðð èø «It is said. . . . . `.

(c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form.

£çðÐð÷ ¶óü¨îð «he sneezed`,
âðÙÿ¨îð÷ü Ðð÷ äð÷Üð÷ü ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð «the boys saw the lions`,
Ðððø¨îÜðÐðó ¨îð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð ¸ðð¦±ðð «the maid-servant will be called`,
µðâðð÷, çðð÷Úðð ¸ð𦠫come, let us go to sleep`

These are called Auxiliary Verbs or merely Auxiliaries. Hindi has only three Auxiliaries:

(1) èð÷Ððð `to be`, with its several forms.
(2) Æðð `was` (which is regarded as the past form of èð÷Ððð), and (3) ¸ððÐðð `to go` with its various forms.

Each Hindi Verb has a number of forms for signifying--

(1) the type or the character of the action denoted by the Verb (Terminate, Progressive, Habitual etc.);
(2) the relation of the subject to the action (acting or acted upon)
(3) the way in which the action etc. is thought of the expressed by the speaker (as a fact, a question, a command, a possibility etc); (4) the time at which the action is thought of as taking place (present, past, future etc); and
(5) the Person, Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object. Each of these is briefly discussed below.

ASPECT

(a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect.

(b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs.

(c) The two most important Aspects are the Terminate and Progressive.

(1) The Terminate Aspect "represents the act as a whole, as a fact". It is"a statement of fact", the action being"thought of as a whole, not as continuing".

"It has two quite different meanings. It expresses a general or a particular fact: «Lead sinks` (general fact). «I see him coming` (particular act)" (Curme).

(2) The Progressive Aspect"represents the action as progressing, proceeding, hence as not ended". «He is working in the garden`, «several books are lying in the table` (Curme). The action in the above sentences is represented as actually going on.

(d) The Terminate forms are the common, simple forms of Verb as explained in the following chapters. The progressive forms are made with the help of the subsidiary Verb ÜèÐðð `to continue `. .

VOICE

The forms of a Verb indicating the relations of the subject to the action etc. (denoted by the Verb) are called voices. Hindi has three voices active, passive and impersonal.

(a) "The active voice indicates that the subjects does something is, or is becoming something". Thus, in the active voice the grammatical subject («that about which something has been said`) is also the logical subject-- the `doer` ÜðÙð ¸ððÃðð èø «Ram goes`, ÑðÄðð ò±ðÜð `the leaf fell`, âð"¨îð ×ðóÙððÜ èø `the boy is ill`, ãðè ÑðÁÿ÷±ðó `she will read`, £çðÐð÷ Ùðô»ð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð `he called me`, ÙðøÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð `I saw Ram`,

ÜðÙð `Ram`, ÑðÄðð «leaf`, âð"ÿ¨îð `Boy`, ãðè `she`, £çðÐð÷ `he`, and ÙðøÐð÷ `I` are the grammatical subjects. The sentences say something about them. They are also the logical subject-- the doers of the act denoted by the Verbs. (For Ðð÷ see *

Ðð÷ is attached to the Subject of a Transitive Verb when it is used in the Past (Participle) form:

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ððÚðð `the boy ate the fruit`;
ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó `Ram read the book`;
±ððÚðð÷ü Ðð÷ ÇõÏð òÇÚðð `the cows gave milk`;
³ðð÷Àð÷ü Ðð÷ ±ððÀÿó ®ðóüµðó `the horses pulled the carriage`;
Øððýá Ðð÷ Ñðëð òâð®ðð èø `the brother has written a letter`;
âðÀÿ¨îó Ðð÷ ®ððÐðð ×ðÐððÚðð Æðð `the girl had cokked the food`;

But the Subject of an Intransitive Verb in the past has the direct form:

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð `the boy came`;
³ðð÷Àÿð ÇðøÀÿð `the horse ran`;
±ððÚð÷ü ±ðÚðóü `the cows went`.

Exceptions:-

A few Transitive Verbs like âððÐðð `to bring,» ØðõâðÐðð `to forget`, ×ðð÷âðÐðð `to speak`, do not take the Subject with Ðð÷; while with çðÙð»ðÐðð `to understand` and ×ð¨îÐðð `to chatter`, Ðð÷ is optional. See :

âðÀÿ¨îð ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð `the boy brought the book`;
×ðòèÐð÷ü Òîâð âððÚðóü `the sisters brought fruits`;
ãðè ×ðð÷âðð `he said`;
Ùðøü çðÙð»ðð `I understood`;
ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ðÑð¨îó ×ððÃð Ððèóü çðÙð»ðó `I did not understand what you said`.)

(b) "The Passive Voice represents the subject as acted upon". Thus, in the Passive Voice, the grammatical subject is not the logical subject the doer, but the logical object-- the person or thing towards whom the action is directed.

äðëðô ÙððÜð ±ðÚðð The enemy was killed`,
Ùðô»ð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð ±ðÚðð I was called,
Úðè ¨îèð ¸ððÃðð èø ò¨î It is said that. . . . .`,

äðëðô `enemy`, Ùðô»ð÷ «I` and Úðè `It` are the grammatical subjects: something has been said about them. They are, however, not the logical subjects-- the doers of killed called, and said. On the other hand, they are the logical objects : the actions of `killing`, «calling`, and `saying` are directed towards them. The logical subjects are not mentioned in the above sentences. They may be guessed from the context («the enemy was killed by us`), or, it may be necessary to mention them («it is said-- unnecessary to say, by whom), sometimes, however, the logical subject is mentioned-- always in the oblique form with çð÷ (* 98.a),

Ùðô»ðçð÷ µððÚð Ððèóü Ñðó ¸ððÃðó «I cannot take tea` (literally tea cannot be taken by me)

Note: The passive voice is naturally restricted to transitive Verbs.

(c) The impersonal voice is restricted to Intransitive Verbs. It has either no subject at all. In which case the action denoted by the verbs serves as the subject; or, if there is a subject, it (the subject) is represented as able or unable to do something (i.e. the action denoted by the Verb) and has the oblique form with çð÷ (* 98-a)

The Impersonal Voice is always in the Neutral Construction. See:

(c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form.

£çðÐð÷ ¶óü¨îð «he sneezed`,
âðÙÿ¨îð÷ü Ðð÷ äð÷Üð÷ü ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð «the boys saw the lions`,
Ðððø¨îÜðÐðó ¨îð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð ¸ðð¦±ðð «the maid-servant will be called`,
µðâðð÷, çðð÷Úðð ¸ð𦠫come, let us go to sleep`

µðâðð÷, ¡×ð çðð÷Úðð ¸ð𦠫come let us now go to sleep` (Literally, come let it be slept`).

ÃðôÙðçð÷ µðâðð ¸ðð¦±ðð ? «will you be able to walk ?, (Literally, «can (will) it be walked by you ?).

Ùðô»ðçð÷ £"ð Ððèóü ¸ððÃðð «I am unable to get up`, (Literally, «it cannot be got up (arisen) by me`).

The first sentence has no subject. The action (sleeping) itself, in a way, is the subject (about which something has been said). In the other two sentences, the subjects ÃðôÙðçð÷ and Ùðô»ðçð÷ are mentioned as `able to walk` and `unable to get up`, and have çð÷.

The Impersonal Voice is, in fact, the Passive Voice used for Intransitive Verbs.

The Verb forms discussed in the following chapters are all Active. For Passive and impersonal forms.

MOOD

The form of the work indicating the manner of the action (whether it just happens, or is ordered to be done, or is dependent upon a condition etc.) are called moods.

Hindi has three moods--- Imperative, indicative and subjunctive.

(a) The imperative mood is a form of Verb expressive and action as a command, a request, a warning, prohibition etc. The subject is frequently omitted but can be easily guessed from both the context and the form of the work.

(Ãðõ) ¸ðð `go` (thou) (ÃðôÙð) ãðèðü Ðð ¸ððÐðð don`t (you) ever go there, ¡ðÑð ¡ðýᦠ`please come`.

(b) The imperative mood is form of Verb which represents the action as a fact, or makes a query about it.

ãðè ±ðÚðð `he went` ©Úðð ãðè ¸ðð¦±ðð ? `will he go` ? âð"ÿ¨îð ®ð÷âð Üèð èø `the boy is playing`.

(c) The subjunctive mood is a form of Verb, which represents the action as a desire, a hope, a possibility, a probability, a condition, a presumption etc.

It has four varieties :-

(i) Optative, expressing desire, demand, entreaty, requirement;

£çð÷ µððòè¦ ò¨î ãðè ³ðÜ ¸ð𦠫he ought to go home`
Ùðøü µððèÃðð èõû ò¨î ãðè ¡ð¦ «I want that he should come`

(ii) Potential, expressing possibility;

çðüØðãð èø, ãðè ¡ðÚðð èð÷ «he may have come`
èð÷ çð¨îÃðð ò¨î ¨îèóü ãðæððá èôýá èð÷ü «it may have rained somewhere`

(iii) Contingent, expressing a contrary-to-fact condition:-
ãðè ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð «he must be come`

TENSE

The forms of a Verb indicating the time of the action are called tenses.

Hindi has six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, habitual past and past perfect.

(a) The present tense represent the act as now going on, or as habitual, repeated or characteristics or it expresses general truth.

ãðè ¡ð Üèð èø «he is coming` (act going on- progressive)
ÜðÙð ç¨õîâð Ùð÷ü ÑðÁÿÃðð èø «Ram studies in a school` (habitual)
ÃðôÙð ¨îèðü ÜèÃð÷ èð÷ «where do you leave ? (habitual)
±ððÚð ÇõÏð Ç÷Ãðó èøü «Cows give milk` (Characteristic),
Çð÷ ¡ðøÜ Çð÷ µððÜ èð÷Ãð÷ èøü «two plus two make four` (general truth)

Note: The Verb in the first sentence has progressive aspect. The rest of the Verbs have terminate the aspect. See :

(a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect.

(b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs.

(c) The two most important Aspects are the Terminate and Progressive.

(1) The Terminate Aspect "represents the act as a whole, as a fact". It is"a statement of fact", the action being"thought of as a whole, not as continuing".

"It has two quite different meanings. It expresses a general or a particular fact: «Lead sinks` (general fact). «I see him coming` (particular act)" (Curme).

(2) The Progressive Aspect"represents the action as progressing, proceeding, hence as not ended". «He is working in the garden`, «several books are lying in the table` (Curme). The action in the above sentences is represented as actually going on.

(d) The Terminate forms are the common, simple forms of Verb as explained in the following chapters. The progressive forms are made with the help of the subsidiary Verb ÜèÐðð `to continue `. These are explained in Chapter XIII * 262.

(b) The past tense represent some (particular) act as going on, or as done, in the past.

ãðè ¸ðð Üèð Æðð «he was going` (going on progressive),
ãðè ±ðÚðð «he went`, (done - terminate),
ÙðøüÐð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «I read the book` (done - terminate)

Note:- The (simple) past is not use with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past: for this habitual past is use. (See :

(e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past.

ãðè çðÇð çðÃÚð ×ðð÷âðÃðð Æðð «He always spoke the truth`,
ãðè ÙðèóÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ¦¨î ×ððÜ ×ðÙ×ðýá ¸ððÃðð Æðð «He went (used to go) to Bombay once every month`,

(c) The future tense `represents and action or state as yet to take place or to come` into being`.

ÜðÙð ¨îâð ¡ð¦±ðð «Ram will come to-morrow`,
Ùðøü ¡±ðâð÷ ãðæðá âðüÇÐð ¸ðð¤û±ðð «I will go to London next year`,

(d) The present perfect tense `represents a completed act the effect of which is still present`

ÙðøüÐð÷ Úðè ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó èø «I have read this book`,
Ùð÷Üð Øððýá ¡ðÚðð èø «My brother has come`,

(e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past.

ãðè çðÇð çðÃÚð ×ðð÷âðÃðð Æðð «He always spoke the truth`,
ãðè ÙðèóÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ¦¨î ×ððÜ ×ðÙ×ðýá ¸ððÃðð Æðð «He went (used to go) to Bombay once every month`,

Note:- Use of habitual past with reference to a particular act (done, or going on, in the past) is now archaic or colloquial, except with few verbs for which

(f) The past perfect tense represents a past action or state as completed act or before a certain past time (which may be expressed or implied):

òÑð¶âð÷ çððâð Ùðøü ×ðÙ×ðýá ±ðÚðð Æðð «I had gone to Bombay (last year)»,
ãðè ¡ð¸ð çðãð÷Ü÷ ¡ðÚðð Æðð «He had come this morning`,

The tenses are treated in detailed in the following chapters:

CONSTRUCTION

In Hindi, a Verb is modified according to the gender number and person of either the subject, or the object, or it has reference only to the action. This gave rise to what are known as constructions.

Hindi Verbs had three constructions:- Subjectival, Objectival& Nautral

(a) In subjectival construction, the Verb has the same Number, Person and Gender as its logical object (the person or thing to whom the action is directed):

âð"ÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «the boy read the book`,
¨îÙðâðð Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ð𦠫kamala ate fruits`.
äð÷Ü ÙððÜð ±ðÚðð «the lion will be killed`,
Ùðô»ðçð÷ µððÚð Ððèóü Ñðó ¸ððÃðó «I can`t take tea`,
Úðè ¨îèð ¸ððÃðð èø «It is said. . . . . `.

(c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form.

£çðÐð÷ ¶óü¨îð «he sneezed`,
âðÙÿ¨îð÷ü Ðð÷ äð÷Üð÷ü ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð «the boys saw the lions`,
Ðððø¨îÜðÐðó ¨îð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð ¸ðð¦±ðð «the maid-servant will be called`,
µðâðð÷, çðð÷Úðð ¸ð𦠫come, let us go to sleep`

Note:- (I) The active has all the three constructions, the Passive has only the Objectival and the Neutral, while the Impersonal has only the Neutral:

Active Ùðøü ¸ððÃðð èõû, Ùðø ±ðÚðð (Subjectival)
ÙðøüÐð÷ âð"ÿ¨îó Ç÷®ðó (Objectival)
Passive ÙðøüÐð÷ Ððøî¨îÜ ¨îð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð (Neutral)
ÜðãðÂð ÙððÜð ±ðÚðð (Objectival)
Impersonal âðÙÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð ±ðÚðð (Neutral)
Ùðô»ðçð÷ £Øð Ððèóü ¸ððÃðð (Neutral)

(ii) In the Active voice, the Objectival and the Neutral constructions are possible only if the Verb has a past participle from (See Chapter XI).

175. The various"forms" discussed above--Aspect, Voice, Mood, Tense and Construction--are not always independent of each other, or distinctly and individually recognizable in each Verb. A single Verb often represents several"Forms". Thus, a Verb like µðâðÃðð èø."he goes" has only two distinctive features,--Ãðð and èø. These represent mainly the Tense (Present), and the construction (Subjectivel: Masculine, Singular, Third Person). The Voice (Active), Aspect (Terminate) and Mood (Indicative) are indicated by the absence of the distinctive features of the other"Forms" (Passive or Impersonal Voices, Progressive Aspect, Imperative and subjunctive Mood). A Verb like (Úðè) çðôÐðð ¸ðð Üèð èø has several distinctive features: ¸ðð indicates Passive: Üèð indicates progressive Aspect, as well as objectival construction (Masculine, Singular, Third Person, agreeing with the object Úðè); and Üèð èø together indicate the Present Indicative Tense.

(b) A Verb restricted by all the above"Forms" is called Finite. There are besides the `Finite Verb`, other Verbs which are restricted one or two of the"Forms". Such for example, are the Infinitive (like µðâðÐðð, ¸ððÐðð : Chapter X) and the Participles (like µðâðÃðð, µðâðð : Chapter XI).

(c) A Root is the basic form of a Verb, which is modified into the various forms. µðâð is the root of µðâðÃðð èø, µðâðð, µðâð÷±ðð, µðâð÷ etc.

(d) Roots are also capable of certain other modifications like Ç÷®ðÐðð `to see`, òÇ®ððÐðð «to show` and Çó®ðÐðð"to be seen".

CHAPTER XXII

(a) Of the three Voices referred to in 171, the Active (in its three constructions) is by far the most important. The forms (Imperative, Indicative and Subjunctive) discussed in this and the following chapters are all Active. The Passive and the Impersonal forms will be treated in Chapter XIV.

As for the Aspect (170) all the forms given in these chapters are to be taken as Terminate, unless otherwise stated. Aspects will be treated along with Compound Verbs (Chapter XIII). Of the three moods referred to in 172, the Imperative has the simplest formation. This will, therefore, be discussed first.

The Imperative Mood, as already stated (178), denotes command, request, warning, prohibition, entreaty etc. By its very nature, the Imperative cannot refer to the past: command or request is impossible with regared to a past action. The Imperative, therefore, is restricted to the Present and the Future Tenses.

(In fact, the Imperative cannot refer even to the present, since what the speaker wants done can take place only after he has spoken: it is neither going on, nor completed at the moment of speaking. Some Imperative forms, however, refer specifically to future - relatively distant future. It is mainly for distinguishing these forms from the ordinary forms that the Imperative is said to have a present form as well).

Since the Imperative denotes command, request etc., its proper domain is the second person. Indirect command request etc. made to a third person may be expressed by the subjunctive (optative) forms. See :-

(a) ¡ð¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``.

(b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for ¡ð `come` would be:-
Singular Plural

For the roots µðâð and èð÷, the forms would be:-

Singular Plural Singular Plural

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