FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002)

Oleander

Nerium oleander

Dogbane (Apocynaceae) Family

Description: This shrub or small tree grows to about

9 meters

(27 feet), with alternate, very straight, dark green leaves. Its flowers may be

white, yellow, red, pink, or intermediate colors. Its fruit is a brown, podlike

structure with many small seeds.

CAUTION

All parts of the plant are very poisonous. Do not use the wood

for cooking; it gives off poisonous fumes that can poison food.

Habitat and Distribution: This native of the Mediterranean area is now grown

as an ornamental in tropical and temperate regions.

C-8

Physic nut

Jatropha curcas

Spurge (Euphoriaceae) Family

Description: This shrub or small tree has large, 3- to 5-parted alternate leaves. It

has small, greenish-yellow flowers and its yellow, apple-sized fruits contain three

large seeds.

CAUTION

The seeds taste sweet but their oil is violently purgative. All

parts of the physic nut are poisonous.

Habitat and Distribution: Throughout the tropics and southern United States.

C-10

Poison hemlock, fool’s parsley

Conium maculatum

Parsley (Apiaceae) Family

Description: This biennial herb may grow to 2.5 meters (8 feet) high. The

smooth, hollow stem may or may not be purple or red striped or mottled. Its white

flowers are small and grow in small groups that tend to form flat umbels. Its long,

turniplike taproot is solid.

CAUTION

This plant is very poisonous, and even a very small amount

may cause death. This plant is easy to confuse with wild carrot

or Queen Anne’s lace, especially in its first stage of growth.

Wild carrot or Queen Anne’s lace has hairy leaves and stems

and smells like carrot. Poison hemlock does not.

Habitat and Distribution: Poison hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like

swamps, wet meadows, stream banks, and ditches. Native to Eurasia, it has

been introduced to the United States and Canada.

C-11

Poison ivy and poison oak

Toxicodendron radicans and Toxicodendron diversibba

Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family

Description: These two plants are quite similar in appearance and will often

crossbreed to make a hybrid. Both have alternate, compound leaves with three

leaflets. The leaves of poison ivy are smooth or serrated. Poison oak’s leaves are

lobed and resemble oak leaves. Poison ivy grows as a vine along the ground or

climbs by red feeder roots. Poison oak grows like a bush. The greenish-white

flowers are small and inconspicuous and are followed by waxy green berries that

turn waxy white or yellow, then gray.

CAUTION

All parts, at all times of the year, can cause serious contact

dermatitis.

Habitat and Distribution: Poison ivy and oak can be found in almost any habitat

in North America.

C-12

Poison sumac

Toxicodendron vernix

Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family

Description: Poison sumac is a shrub that grows to 8.5 meters (28 feet) tall. It has

alternate, pinnately compound leafstalks with 7 to 13 leaflets. Flowers are greenish-

yellow and inconspicuous and are followed by white or pale yellow berries.

CAUTION

All parts can cause serious contact dermatitis at all times of

the year.

Habitat and Distribution: Poison sumac grows only in wet, acid swamps in

North America.

C-13

Rosary pea or crab’s eyes

Abrus precatorius

Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family

Description: This plant is a vine with alternate compound leaves, light purple

flowers, and beautiful seeds that are red and black.

CAUTION

This plant is one of the most dangerous plants. One seed may

contain enough poison to kill an adult.

Habitat and Distribution: This is a common weed in parts of Africa, southern

Florida, Hawaii, Guam, the Caribbean, and Central and South America.

C-14

Strychnine tree

Nux vomica

Logania (Loganiaceae) Family

Description: The strychnine tree is a medium-sized evergreen, reaching a

height of about 12 meters (36 feet), with a thick, frequently crooked trunk. Its

deeply veined oval leaves grow in alternate pairs. Small, loose clusters of

greenish flowers appear at the ends of branches and are followed by fleshy,

orange-red berries about 4 centimeters (1 1/2 inches) in diameter.

CAUTION

The berries contain the disklike seeds that yield the poisonous

substance strychnine. All parts of the plant are poisonous.

Habitat and Distribution: A native of the tropics and subtropics of southeastern

Asia and Australia.

C-15

Trumpet vine or trumpet creeper

Campsis radicans

Trumpet creeper (Bignoniaceae) Family

Description: This woody vine may climb to 15 meters (45 feet) high. It has

pealike fruit capsules. The leaves are pinnately compound, 7 to 11 toothed

leaves per leaf stock. The trumpet-shaped flowers are orange to scarlet in color.

CAUTION

This plant causes contact dermatitis.

Habitat and Distribution: This vine is found in wet woods and thickets

throughout eastern and central North America.

C-16

Water hemlock or spotted cowbane

Cicuta maculata

Parsley (Apiaceae) Family

Description: This perennial herb may grow to 1.8 meters (6 feet) high. The stem

is hollow and sectioned off like bamboo. It may or may not be purple or red

striped or mottled. Its flowers are small, white, and grow in groups that tend to

form flat umbels. Its roots may have hollow air chambers and, when cut, may

produce drops of yellow oil.

CAUTION

This plant is very poisonous and even a very small amount

of this plant may cause death. Its roots have been mistaken

for parsnips.

Habitat and Distribution: Water hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like

swamps, wet meadows, stream banks, and ditches throughout the Unites States

and Canada.

C-17

Scorpion

Scorpionidae order

Description: Dull brown, yellow, or black. Have 7.5- to 20-centimeter long (3- to

8-inch long) lobsterlike pincers and jointed tail usually held over the back. There

are 800 species of scorpions.

Habitat: Decaying matter, under debris, logs, and rocks. Feeds at night.

Sometimes hides in boots.

Distribution: Worldwide in temperate, arid, and tropical regions.

CAUTION

Scorpions sting with their tails, causing local pain, swelling,

possible incapacitation, and death.

D-2

Widow spider

Latrodectus species

Description: Dark spiders with light red or orange markings on female’s

abdomen.

Habitat: Under logs, rocks, and debris. In shaded places.

Distribution: Varied species worldwide. Black widow in United States, red widow

in Middle East, and brown widow in Australia.

NOTE: Females are the poisonous gender. Red widow in the Middle East is the

only spider known to be deadly to man.

D-6

Wasps and hornets

Description: Generally smooth-bodied, slender stinging insects. Many nest

individually in mud nests or in paper nest colonies. Smooth stinger permits

multiple attacks. There are several hundred species worldwide.

Habitat: May be found anywhere in various species.

Distribution: Worldwide.

NOTE: An exception to general appearance is the velvet ant of the southern

United States. It is a flightless wasp with red and black alternating velvety bands.

D-9

Appendix E

Venomous Snakes and Lizards

If you fear snakes, it is probably because you are

unfamiliar with them or you have wrong

information about them. There is no need for you

to fear snakes if you know—

• Their habits.

• How to identify the dangerous kinds.

• Precautions to take to prevent snakebite.

• What actions to take in case of snakebite (Chapter 3).

For a man wearing shoes and trousers and living

in a camp, the danger of being bitten by a

venomous snake is small compared to the hazards

of malaria, cholera, dysentery, or other diseases.

Nearly all snakes avoid man if possible. A few—the

king cobra of Southeast Asia, the bushmaster and

tropical rattlesnake of South America, and the

mamba of Africa—may aggressively attack man,

but even these snakes do so only occasionally. Most

snakes get out of the way and are seldom seen.

WAYS TO AVOID SNAKEBITE

E-1. Snakes are widely distributed. They are found in all tropical,

subtropical, and most temperate regions. Some species of snakes

have specialized glands that contain a toxic venom, and long, hollow

fangs to inject their venom.

E-2. Although venomous snakes use their venom to secure food,

they also use it for self-defense. Human accidents occur when you

don’t see or hear the snake, when you step on them, or when you

walk too close to them.

E-3. Follow these simple rules to reduce the chance of accidental

snakebite:

• Don’t sleep next to brush, tall grass, large boulders, or trees.

They provide hiding places for snakes. Place your sleeping

E-1

bag in a clearing. Use mosquito netting tucked well under

the bag. This netting should provide a good barrier.

• Don’t put your hands into dark places, such as rock

crevices, heavy brush, or hollow logs, without first

investigating.

• Don’t step over a fallen tree. Step on the log and look to

see if there is a snake resting on the other side.

• Don’t walk through heavy brush or tall grass without

looking down. Look where you are walking.

• Don’t pick up any snake unless you are absolutely

positive it is not venomous.

• Don’t pick up freshly killed snakes without first severing

the head. The nervous system may still be active and a

dead snake can deliver a bite.

SNAKE GROUPS

E-4. Snakes dangerous to man usually fall into two groups:

proteroglypha and solenoglypha. Their fangs and their venom best

describe these two groups (Figure E-1).

Group

Fang Type

Venom Type

Proteroglypha

Fixed

Usually dominant neurotoxic

Solenoglypha

Folded

Usually dominant hemotoxic

Figure E-1. Snake Group Characteristics

FANGS

E-5. The proteroglypha have, in front of the upper jaw and

preceding the ordinary teeth, permanently erect fangs. These fangs

are called fixed fangs.

E-6. The solenoglypha have erectile fangs; that is, fangs they can

raise to an erect position. These fangs are called folded fangs.

VENOM

E-7. The fixed-fang snakes (proteroglypha) usually have neurotoxic

venoms. These venoms affect the nervous system, making the victim

unable to breathe.

E-2

E-8. The folded-fang snakes (solenoglypha) usually have hemotoxic

venoms. These venoms affect the circulatory system, destroying

blood cells, damaging skin tissues, and causing internal

hemorrhaging.

E-9. Remember, however, that most venomous snakes have both

neurotoxic and hemotoxic venom. Usually one type of venom in the

snake is dominant and the other is weak.

VENOMOUS VERSUS NONVENOMOUS SNAKES

E-10. No single characteristic distinguishes a venomous snake from

a harmless one except the presence of poison fangs and glands. Only

in dead specimens can you determine the presence of these fangs

and glands without danger.

DESCRIPTIONS OF VENOMOUS SNAKES

E-11. There are many different venomous snakes throughout the

world. It is unlikely you will see many except in a zoo. This manual

describes only a few venomous snakes. However, you should be able

to spot a venomous snake if you—

• Learn about the two groups of snakes and the families in

which they fall (Figures E-2, pages E-3 and E-4, and E-3,

pages E-4 and E-5).

• Examine the pictures and read the descriptions of snakes

in this appendix.

Group

Family

Local Effects

Venom Type

Solenoglypha

Viperidae

Strong pain,

Hemorrhaging,

Usually dominant

True vipers

swelling,

internal organ

hemotoxic venom

with movable

necrosis.

break down,

affecting the

front fangs.

destroying of

circulatory system.

blood cells.

Crotalidae

Pit vipers with

movable front

fangs.

Trimeresurus

Figure E-2. Clinical Effects of Snakebites

E-3

Group

Family

Local Effects

Venom Type

Proteroglypha

Elapidae

Usually dominant

Fixed front fangs.

neurotoxic venom

Cobra

Various pains,

Respiratory

affecting the

swelling, necrosis.

collapse.

nervous system.

Krait

No local effects.

Respiratory

collapse.

Micrurus

Little or no pain; no Respiratory

local symptoms.

collapse.

Laticaudidae

Pain and local

Respiratory

and Hydrophidae

swelling.

collapse.

Ocean-living with

fixed front fangs.

NOTE: The venom of the gaboon viper, the rhinoceros viper, the tropical

rattlesnake, and the Mojave rattlesnake is both strongly hemotoxic and

neurotoxic.

Figure E-2. Clinical Effects of Snakebites (Continued)

Viperidae

Common Adder

Palestinian Viper

Long-Nosed Adder

Puff Adder

Gaboon Viper

Rhinoceros Viper

Levant Viper

Russell’s Viper

Horned Desert Viper

Sand Viper

McMahon’s Viper

Saw-Scaled Viper

Mole Viper

Ursini’s Viper

Elapidae

Australian Copperhead

Green Mamba

Common Cobra

King Cobra

Coral Snake

Krait

Death Adder

Taipan

Egyptian Cobra

Tiger Snake

Figure E-3. Snake Families

E-4

Crotalidae

American Copperhead

Habu Pit Viper

Boomslang

Jumping Viper

Bush Viper

Malayan Pit Viper

Bushmaster

Mojave Rattlesnake

Cottonmouth

Pallas’ Viper

Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake

Tropical Rattlesnake

Eyelash Pit Viper

Wagler’s Pit Viper

Fer-de-lance

Western Diamondback Rattlesnake

Green Tree Pit Viper

Banded Sea Snake

Hydrophidae

Yellow-Bellied Sea Snake

Figure E-3. Snake Families (Continued)

VIPERIDAE

E-12. The viperidae, or true vipers, usually have thick bodies and

heads that are much wider than their necks (Figure E-4). However,

there are many different sizes, markings, and colorations.

Figure E-4. Positive Identification of Vipers

E-5

E-13. This snake group has developed a highly sophisticated means

for delivering venom. They have long, hollow fangs that perform like

hypodermic needles. They deliver their venom deep into the wound.

E-14. The fangs of this group of snakes are movable. These snakes

fold their fangs into the roof of their mouths. When they strike, their

fangs come forward, stabbing the victim. The snake controls the

movement of its fangs; fang movement is not automatic. The venom

is usually hemotoxic. However, there are several species that have

large quantities of neurotoxic elements, thus making them even

more dangerous. The vipers are responsible for many human

fatalities around the world.

CROTALIDAE

E-15. The crotalids, or pit vipers (Figure E-5), may be either slender

or thick-bodied. Their heads are usually much wider than their

necks. These snakes take their name from the deep pit located

between the eye and the nostril. They are usually brown with dark

blotches but some kinds are green.

Figure E-5 Positive Identification of Pit Vipers

E-16. Rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths, and several species

of dangerous snakes from Central and South America, Asia, China,

and India fall into the pit viper group. The pit is a highly sensitive

organ capable of picking up the slightest temperature variance. Most

pit vipers are nocturnal. They hunt for food at night with the aid of

these specialized pits that let them locate prey in total darkness.

E-6

Rattlesnakes are the only pit vipers that possess a rattle at the tip of

the tail.

E-17. India has about twelve species of these snakes. You find them

in trees or on the ground in all types of terrain. The tree snakes are

slender; the ground snakes are heavy-bodied. All are dangerous.

E-18. China has a pit viper similar to the cottonmouth found in

North America. You find it in the rocky areas of the remote

mountains of South China. It reaches a length of

1.4 meters

(5 feet) but is not vicious unless irritated. You can also find a small

pit viper, about 45 centimeters (18 inches) long, on the plains of

eastern China. It is too small to be dangerous to a man wearing

shoes.

E-19. There are about twenty-seven species of rattlesnakes in the

United States and Mexico. They vary in color and may or may not

have spots or blotches. Some are small but others, such as the

diamondbacks, may grow to 2.5 meters (8 feet) long.

E-20. There are five kinds of rattlesnakes in Central and South

America, but only the tropical rattlesnake is widely distributed. The

rattle on the tip of the tail is sufficient identification for a

rattlesnake.

E-21. Most will try to escape without a fight when approached, but

there is always a chance one will strike at a passerby. They do not

always give a warning; they may strike first and rattle afterwards or

not at all.

E-22. The genus Trimeresurus is a subgroup of the crotalidae. These

are Asian pit vipers. They are normally tree-loving snakes, but some

live on the ground. They basically have the same characteristics of

the crotalidae—slender build and very dangerous. Their bites

usually are on the upper extremities—head, neck, and shoulders.

Their venom is largely hemotoxic.

ELAPIDAE

E-23. Elapidae are a group of highly dangerous snakes with a

powerful neurotoxic venom that affects the nervous system, causing

respiratory paralysis. Included in this family are coral snakes,

cobras, mambas, and all the Australian venomous snakes. The coral

snake is small and has caused human fatalities. The Australian

E-7

death adder, tiger, taipan, and king brown snakes are among the

most venomous in the world, causing many human fatalities.

E-24. Only by examining a dead snake can you positively determine

if it is a cobra or a near relative (Figure E-6). On cobras, kraits, and

coral snakes, the third scale on the upper lip touches both the nostril

scale and the eye. The krait also has a row of enlarged scales down

its ridged back.

Figure E-6. Positive Identification of Cobras, Kraits,and Coral Snakes

E-25. You can find the cobras of Africa and the Near East in almost

any habitat. One kind may live in or near water, another in trees.

Some are aggressive and savage. The distance a cobra can strike in a

forward direction is equal to the distance its head is raised above the

ground. Some cobras, however, can spit venom a distance of 3 to 3.5

meters (10 to 12 feet). This venom is harmless unless it gets into

your eyes; then it may cause blindness if not washed out

immediately. Poking around in holes and rock piles is dangerous

because of the chance of encountering a spitting cobra.

LATICAUDIDAE AND HYDROPHIDAE

E-26. A subfamily of elapidae, these snakes are specialized in that

they found a better environment in the oceans. Why they are in the

oceans is not clear to scientists.

E-8

E-27. Sea snakes differ in appearance from other snakes in that they

have an oarlike tail to aid in swimming. Some species of sea

nakes have venom several times more toxic than the cobra’s.

Because of their marine environment, sea snakes seldom come in

contact with humans. The exceptions are fisherman who capture

these dangerous snakes in fishnets and scuba divers who swim in

waters where sea snakes are found.

E-28. There are many species of sea snakes. They vary greatly in

color and shape. Their scales distinguish them from eels that have

no scales.

E-29. Sea snakes occur in salt water along the coasts throughout the

Pacific. There are also sea snakes on the east coast of

Africa and in the Persian Gulf. There are no sea snakes in the

Atlantic Ocean.

E-30. There is no need to fear sea snakes. They have not been known

to attack a man swimming. Fishermen occasionally get bitten by a

sea snake caught in a net. The bite is dangerous.

COLUBRIDAE

E-31. The colubridae is the largest group of snakes worldwide. In

this family there are species that are rear-fanged; however, most are

completely harmless to man. They have a venom-producing gland

and enlarged, grooved rear fangs that allow venom to flow into the

wound. The inefficient venom apparatus and the specialized venom

is effective on cold-blooded animals (such as frogs and lizards) but

not considered a threat to human life. However, the boomslang and

the twig snake of Africa have caused human deaths.

LIZARDS

E-32. There is little to fear from lizards as long as you follow the

same precautions as for avoiding snakebite. There are only two

poisonous lizards: the Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard.

The venom of both these lizards is neurotoxic. The two lizards are in

the same family, and both are slow moving with a docile nature.

E-33. The komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), although not

poisonous, can be dangerous due to its large size. These lizards can

reach lengths of 3 meters (10 feet) and weigh over 115 kilograms

(253 pounds). Do not try to capture this lizard.

E-9

VENOMOUS SNAKES OF THE AMERICAS

American copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix

Description: Chestnut color dominates overall, with darker crossbands of rich

browns that become narrower on top and widen at the bottom. The top of the

head is a coppery color.

Characteristics: Very common over much of its range, with a natural

camouflage ability to blend in the environment. Copperheads are rather quiet and

inoffensive in disposition but will defend themselves vigorously. Bites occur when

the snakes are stepped on or when a victim is lying next to one. A copperhead

lying on a bed of dead leaves becomes invisible. Its venom is hemotoxic.

Habitat: Found in wooded and rocky areas and mountainous regions.

Length: Average

60 centimeters

(24 inches), maximum

(47 inches)

120

centimeters.

Distribution: Texas, Oklahoma, Illinois, Kansas, Ohio, most of the southeast

United States, and along the Atlantic coast from north Florida to Massachusetts

(Figure E-7, page E-11).

E-10

FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002) - page 18