FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002)

BRUSH RAFT

17-14. The brush raft, if properly constructed, will support about

115 kilograms (253 pounds). To construct it, use ponchos, fresh

green brush, two small saplings, and rope or vine as follows

(Figure 17-4, page 17-7):

•

Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly

tie off the necks using the drawstrings.

•

Attach the ropes or vines at the corner and side grommets

of each poncho. Make sure they are long enough to cross to

and tie with the others attached at the opposite corner or

side.

•

Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up.

Pile fresh, green brush (no thick branches) on the poncho

until the brush stack is about 45 centimeters (18 inches)

high. Pull the drawstring up through the center of the

brush stack.

•

Make an X-frame from two small saplings and place it on

top of the brush stack. Tie the X-frame securely in place

with the poncho drawstring.

•

Pile another 45 centimeters (18 inches) of brush on top of

the X-frame, then compress the brush slightly.

•

Pull the poncho sides up around the brush and, using the

ropes or vines attached to the corner or side grommets, tie

them diagonally from corner to corner and from side to

side.

•

Spread the second poncho, inner side up, next to the brush

bundle.

•

Roll the brush bundle onto the second poncho so that the

tied side is down. Tie the second poncho around the brush

bundle in the same manner as you tied the first poncho

around the brush.

•

Place it in the water with the tied side of the second

poncho facing up.

17-6

Figure 17-4. Brush Raft

AUSTRALIAN PONCHO RAFT

17-15. If you do not have time to gather brush for a brush raft,

you can make an Australian poncho raft. This raft, although more

waterproof than the poncho brush raft, will only float about 35

kilograms (77 pounds) of equipment. To construct this raft, use

two ponchos, two rucksacks, two

1.2-meter

(4-foot) poles or

branches, and ropes, vines, bootlaces, or comparable material as

follows (Figure 17-5, page 17-8):

• Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly

tie off the necks using the drawstrings.

• Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up.

Place and center the two 1.2-meter (4-foot) poles on the

poncho about 45 centimeters (18 inches) apart.

• Place your rucksacks, packs, or other equipment between

the poles. Also, place other items that you want to keep dry

between the poles. Snap the poncho sides together.

• Use your buddy’s help to complete the raft. Hold the

snapped portion of the poncho in the air and roll it tightly

down to the equipment. Make sure you roll the full width

of the poncho.

• Twist the ends of the roll to form pigtails in opposite

directions. Fold the pigtails over the bundle and tie them

securely in place using ropes, bootlaces, or vines.

17-7

• Spread the second poncho on the ground, inner side up. If

you need more buoyancy, place some fresh green brush on

this poncho.

• Place the equipment bundle, tied side down, on the center

of the second poncho. Wrap the second poncho around the

equipment bundle following the same procedure you used

for wrapping the equipment in the first poncho.

• Tie ropes, bootlaces, vines, or other binding material

around the raft about 30 centimeters (12 inches) from the

end of each pigtail. Place and secure weapons on top of the

raft.

• Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other

end to the raft. This will help you to tow the raft.

Figure 17-5. Australian Poncho Raft

PONCHO DONUT RAFT

17-16. Another type of raft is the poncho donut raft. It takes more

time to construct than the brush raft or Australian poncho raft,

but it is effective. To construct it, use one poncho, small saplings,

willow or vines, and rope, bootlaces, or other binding material

(Figure 17-6, page 17-9) as follows:

• Make a framework circle by placing several stakes in the

ground that roughly outline an inner and outer circle.

17-8

• Using young saplings, willow, or vines, construct a donut

ring within the circles of stakes.

• Wrap several pieces of cordage around the donut ring

about 30 to 60 centimeters (12 to 24 inches) apart and tie

them securely.

• Push the poncho’s hood to the inner side and tightly tie off

the neck using the drawstring.

• Place the poncho on the ground, inner side up. Place the

donut ring on the center of the poncho. Wrap the poncho

up and over the donut ring and tie off each grommet on the

poncho to the ring.

• Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other

end to the raft. This rope will help you to tow the raft.

Figure 17-6. Poncho Donut Raft

17-17. When launching any of the above rafts, take care not to

puncture or tear it by dragging it on the ground. Before you start

to cross the river or stream, let the raft lay on the water a few

minutes to ensure that it floats.

17-18. If the river is too deep to ford, push the raft in front of you

while you are swimming. The design of the above rafts does not

allow them to carry a person’s full body weight. Use them as a

float to get you and your equipment safely across the river

or stream.

17-19. Be sure to check the water temperature before trying to

cross a river or water obstacle. If the water is extremely cold and

you are unable to find a shallow fording place in the river, do not

17-9

try to ford it. Devise other means for crossing. For instance, you

might improvise a bridge by felling a tree over the river. Or you

might build a raft large enough to carry you and your equipment.

For this, however, you will need an axe, a knife, a rope or vines,

and time.

LOG RAFT

17-20. You can make a raft using any dry, dead, standing trees

for logs. However, spruce trees found in polar and subpolar

regions make the best rafts. A simple method for making a raft is

to use pressure bars lashed securely at each end of the raft to

hold the logs together (Figure 17-7).

Figure 17-7. Use of Pressure Bars

FLOTATION DEVICES

17-21. If the water is warm enough for swimming and you do not

have the time or materials to construct one of the poncho-type

rafts, you can use various flotation devices to negotiate the water

obstacle. Some items you can use for flotation devices are—

• Trousers. Knot each trouser leg at the bottom and close the

fly. With both hands, grasp the waistband at the sides and

swing the trousers in the air to trap air in each leg. Quickly

press the sides of the waistband together and hold it

underwater so that the air will not escape. You now have

water wings to keep you afloat as you cross the body of water.

17-10

NOTE: Wet the trousers before inflating to trap the air better

You may have to reinflate the trousers several times when

crossing a large body of water.

• Empty containers. Lash together empty gas cans, water

jugs, ammo cans, boxes, or other items that will trap or

hold air. Use them as water wings. Use this type of

flotation device only in a slow-moving river or stream.

• Plastic bags and ponchos. Fill two or more plastic bags

with air and secure them together at the opening. Use your

poncho and roll green vegetation tightly inside it so that

you have a roll at least

20 centimeters

(8 inches) in

diameter. Tie the ends of the roll securely. You can wear it

around your waist or across one shoulder and under the

opposite arm.

• Logs. Use a stranded drift log if one is available, or find a

log near the water to use as a float. Be sure to test the log

before starting to cross. Some tree logs—palm, for

example—will sink even when the wood is dead. Another

method is to tie two logs about

60 centimeters

(24 inches) apart. Sit between the logs with your back

against one and your legs over the other (Figure 17-8).

• Cattails. Gather stalks of cattails and tie them in a bundle

25 centimeters (10 inches) or more in diameter. The many

air cells in each stalk cause a stalk to float until it rots.

Test the cattail bundle to be sure it will support your

weight before trying to cross a body of water.

Figure 17-8. Log Flotation

17-11

17-22. There are many other flotation devices that you can devise

by using some imagination. Just make sure to test the device

before trying to use it.

OTHER WATER OBSTACLES

17-23. Other water obstacles that you may face are bogs,

quagmire, muskeg, or quicksand. Do not try to walk across these.

Trying to lift your feet while standing upright will make you sink

deeper. Try to bypass these obstacles. If you are unable to bypass

them, you may be able to bridge them using logs, branches, or

foliage.

17-24. A way to cross a bog is to lie face down, with your arms

and legs spread. Use a flotation device or form pockets of air in

your clothing. Swim or pull your way across moving slowly and

trying to keep your body horizontal.

17-25. In swamps, the areas that have vegetation are usually firm

enough to support your weight. However, vegetation will usually

not be present in open mud or water areas. If you are an average

swimmer, you should have no problem swimming, crawling, or

pulling your way through miles of bog or swamp.

17-26. Quicksand is a mixture of sand and water that forms a

shifting mass. It yields easily to pressure and sucks down and

engulfs objects resting on its surface. It varies in depth and is

usually localized. Quicksand commonly occurs on flat shores, in

silt-choked rivers with shifting watercourses, and near the

mouths of large rivers. If you are uncertain whether a sandy area

is quicksand, toss a small stone on it. The stone will sink in

quicksand. Although quicksand has more suction than mud or

muck, you can cross it just as you would cross a bog. Lie face

down, spread your arms and legs, and move slowly across.

VEGETATION OBSTACLES

17-27. Some water areas you must cross may have underwater

and floating plants that will make swimming difficult. However,

you can swim through relatively dense vegetation if you remain

calm and do not thrash about. Stay as near the surface as

possible and use the breaststroke with shallow leg and arm

motion. Remove the plants around you as you would clothing.

17-12

When you get tired, float or swim on your back until you have

rested enough to continue with the breaststroke.

17-28. The mangrove swamp is another type of obstacle that

occurs along tropical coastlines. Mangrove trees or shrubs throw

out many prop roots that form dense masses. To get through a

mangrove swamp, wait for low tide. If you are on the inland side,

look for a narrow grove of trees and work your way seaward

through these. You can also try to find the bed of a waterway or

creek through the trees and follow it to the sea. If you are on the

seaward side, work inland along streams or channels. Be on the

lookout for crocodiles along channels and in shallow water. If

there are any near you, leave the water and scramble over the

mangrove roots. While crossing a mangrove swamp, it is possible

to gather food from tidal pools or tree roots.

17-29. A large swamp area requires more time and effort.

Therefore, if you must cross a large swamp area, construct some

type of raft.

17-13

Chapter 18

Field-Expedient Direction Finding

In a survival situation, you will be extremely

fortunate if you happen to have a map and

compass. If you do have these two pieces of

equipment, you will most likely be able to move

toward help. If you are not proficient in using a

map and compass, you must take the steps to gain

this skill.

There are several methods by which you can

determine direction by using the sun and the

stars. These methods, however, will give you only

a general direction. You can come up with a more

nearly true direction if you know the terrain of the

territory or country.

You must learn all you can about the terrain of

the country or territory to which you or your unit

may be sent, especially any prominent features or

landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain

together with using the methods explained below

will let you come up with fairly true directions to

help you navigate.

USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS

18-1. The earth’s relationship to the sun can help you

determine direction on earth. The sun always rises in the east

and sets in the west, but not exactly due east or due west. There

is also some seasonal variation. Shadows will move in the

opposite direction of the sun. In the Northern Hemisphere, they

will move from west to east, and will point north at noon. In the

Southern Hemisphere, shadows will indicate south at noon. With

practice, you can use shadows to determine both direction and

time of day. The shadow methods used for direction finding are

the shadow-tip and watch methods.

18-1

SHADOW-TIP METHODS

18-2. In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter

(3 feet) long, and a level spot free of brush on which the stick will

cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and

consists of four steps:

• Step 1. Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level

spot where it will cast a distinctive shadow. Mark the

shadow’s tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first

shadow mark is always west—everywhere on earth.

• Step 2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a

few centimeters. Mark the shadow tip’s new position in the

same way as the first. This mark will represent East.

• Step 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to

obtain an approximate east-west line.

• Step 4. Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and

the second mark to your right—you are now facing north.

This fact is true everywhere on earth.

18-3. An alternate method is more accurate but requires more

time. Set up your shadow stick and mark the first shadow in the

morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this

mark and around the stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink

and disappear. In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at

the point where it touches the arc, make a second mark. Draw a

line through the two marks to get an accurate east-west line

(Figure 18-1, page 18-3).

THE WATCH METHOD

18-4. You can also determine direction using a common or analog

watch—one that has hands. The direction will be accurate if you

are using true local time, without any changes for daylight

savings time. Remember, the further you are from the equator,

the more accurate this method will be. If you only have a digital

watch, draw a clock face on a circle of paper with the correct time

on it and use it to determine your direction at that time. You may

also choose to draw a clock face on the ground or lay your watch

on the ground for a more accurate reading.

18-2

and is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and

in the west after noon.

NOTE: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the

midway point between the hour hand and 1 o’clock to determine

the north-south line.

18-6. In the Southern Hemisphere, point the watch’s 12-o’clock

mark toward the sun; a midpoint halfway between 12 and the

hour hand will give you the north-south line (Figure 18-2).

Figure 18-2. Watch Method

18-7. Another method is called the 24-hour clock method. Take

the local military time and divide it by two. Imagine this result to

now represent the hour hand. In the Northern Hemisphere, point

this resulting hour hand at the sun, and the 12 will point north.

For example, it is 1400 hours. Divide 1400 by two and the answer

700, which will represent the hour. Holding the watch

horizontal, point the 7 at the sun and 12 will point north. In the

Southern Hemisphere, point the 12 at the sun, and the resulting

“hour” from the division will point south.

18-4

USING THE MOON

18-8. Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it

when it reflects the sun’s light. As it orbits the earth on its 28-day

circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its

position. We say there is a new moon or no moon when it is on the

opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away

from the earth’s shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right side

and waxes to become a full moon before waning, or losing shape, to

appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this information to

identify direction.

18-9. If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated

side will be the west. If the moon rises after midnight, the

illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides

us with a rough east-west reference during the night.

USING THE STARS

18-10. Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere

determines which constellation you use to determine your north

or south direction. Each sky is explained below.

THE NORTHERN SKY

18-11. The main constellations to learn are the Ursa Major,

also known as the Big Dipper or the Plow, and Cassiopeia, also

known as the Lazy W (Figure 18-3, page 18-6). Use them to locate

Polaris, also known as the polestar or the North Star. Polaris is

considered to remain stationary, as it rotates only 1.08 degrees

around the northern celestial pole. The North Star is the last star

of the Little Dipper’s handle and can be confused with the Big

Dipper. However, the Little Dipper is made up of seven rather

dim stars and is not easily seen unless you are far away from any

town or city lights. Prevent confusion by attempting to use both

the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and

Cassiopeia are generally opposite each other and rotate

counterclockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The

Big Dipper is a seven-star constellation in the shape of a dipper.

The two stars forming the outer lip of this dipper are the “pointer

stars” because they point to the North Star. Mentally draw a line

from the outer bottom star to the outer top star of the Big

Dipper’s bucket. Extend this line about five times the distance

18-5

between the pointer stars. You will find the North Star along this

line. You may also note that the North Star can always be found

at the same approximate vertical angle above the horizon as the

northern line of latitude you are located on. For example, if you

are at 35 degrees north latitude, Polaris will be easier to find if

you scan the sky at 35 degrees off the horizon. This will help to

lessen the area of the sky in which to locate the Big Dipper,

Cassiopeia, and the North Star.

18-12. Cassiopeia or the Lazy W has five stars that form a shape

like a “W.” One side of the “W” appears flattened or “lazy.” The

North Star can be found by bisecting the angle formed on the lazy

side. Extend this line about five times the distance between the

bottom of the “W” and the top. The North Star is located between

Cassiopeia and the Ursa Major (Big Dipper).

18-13. After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true

north by drawing an imaginary line directly to the earth.

Figure 18-3. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia

18-6

THE SOUTHERN SKY

18-14. Because there is no single star bright enough to be easily

recognized near the south celestial pole, you can use a constellation

known as the Southern Cross. You can use it as a signpost to the

South (Figure 18-4). The Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its

four brightest stars form a cross. The two stars that make up the

Cross’s long axis are used as a guideline. To determine south,

imagine a distance four-and-one-half to five times the distance

between these stars and the horizon. The pointer stars to the left of

the Southern Cross serve two purposes. First, they provide an

additional cue toward south by imagining a line from the stars

toward the ground. Second, the pointer stars help accurately

identify the true Southern Cross from the False Cross. The

intersection of the Southern Cross and the two pointer stars is very

dark and devoid of stars. This area is called the coal sac. Look

down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a

landmark to steer by. In a static survival situation, you can fix this

location in daylight if you drive stakes in the ground at night to

point the way.

Figure 18-4. Southern Cross

18-7

MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES

18-15. You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of

ferrous metal that can be needleshaped or a flat double-edged

razor blade and a piece of thread or long hair from which to

suspend it. You can magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly

stroking it in one direction on a piece of silk or carefully through

your hair using deliberate strokes. You can also polarize metal by

stroking it repeatedly at one end with a magnet. Always stroke in

one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric wire,

you can polarize the metal electrically. The wire should be

insulated. If it is not insulated, wrap the metal object in a single,

thin strip of paper or a leaf to prevent contact. The battery must

be a minimum of 2 volts. Form a coil with the electric wire and

touch its ends to the battery’s terminals. Repeatedly insert one

end of the metal object in and out of the coil. The needle will

become an electromagnet. When suspended from a piece of

nonmetallic string, or floated on a small piece of wood, cork or a

leaf in water, it will align itself with a north-south line.

18-16. You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass

using a sewing needle or thin metallic object, a nonmetallic

container (for example, the cut-off bottom of a plastic container or

soft drink bottle), and the silver tip from a pen. To construct this

compass, take an ordinary sewing needle and break in half. One

half will form your direction pointer and the other will act as the

pivot point. Push the portion used as the pivot point through the

bottom center of your container; this portion should be flush on

the bottom and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the

other portion (the pointer) of the needle on the pen’s silver tip

using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end of the

pointer and rest it on the pivot point.

OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION

18-17. The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north

is not considered accurate because moss grows completely around

some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree

facing the south in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa in

the southern hemisphere. If there are several felled trees around

for comparison, look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on

the side toward the equator and the tree growth rings will be

18-8

more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will

be closer together on the side toward the poles.

18-18. Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where

there are prevailing directions and you know what they are.

18-19. Recognizing the differences between vegetation and

moisture patterns on north- and south-facing slopes can aid in

determining direction. In the Northern Hemisphere, north-facing

slopes receive less sun than south-facing slopes and are therefore

cooler and damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain

patches of snow. In the winter, trees and open areas on south-

facing slopes and the southern side of boulders and large rocks

are the first to lose their snow. The ground snowpack is also

shallower due to the warming effects of the sun. In the Southern

Hemisphere, all of these effects will be the opposite.

18-9

Chapter 19

Signaling Techniques

One of your first concerns when you find yourself

in a survival situation is to communicate with

your friends or allies. Generally, communication

is the giving and receiving of information. In a

survival situation, you must first get your

rescuer’s attention, then second, send a message

your rescuer understands. Some attention-

getters are man-made geometric patterns such as

straight lines, circles, triangles, or Xs displayed

in uninhabited areas; a large fire or flash of light;

a large, bright object moving slowly; or contrast,

whether from color or shadows. The type of

signal used will depend on your environment and

the enemy situation.

APPLICATION

19-1. If in a noncombat situation, you need to find the largest

available clear and flat area on the highest possible terrain. Use

as obvious a signal as you can create. On the other hand, you will

have to be more discreet in combat situations. You do not want to

signal and attract the enemy. Pick an area that is visible from the

air, but ensure there are hiding places nearby. Try to have a hill

or other object between the signal site and the enemy to mask

your signal from the enemy. Perform a thorough reconnaissance

of the area to ensure there are no enemy forces nearby.

19-2. Whatever signaling technique or device you plan to use,

know how to use it and be ready to put it into operation on short

notice. If possible, avoid using signals or signaling techniques

that can physically endanger you. Keep in mind that signals to

your friends may alert the enemy of your presence and location.

Before signaling, carefully weigh your rescue chances by friends

against the danger of capture by the enemy.

19-3. A radio is probably the surest and quickest way to let others

know where you are and to let you receive their messages.

19-1

Become familiar with the radios in your unit. Learn how to

operate them and how to send and receive messages.

19-4. You will find descriptions of other signaling techniques,

devices, and articles you can use. Learn how to use them. Think

of ways in which you can adapt or change them for different

environments. Practice using these signaling techniques, devices,

and articles before you need them. Planned, prearranged

signaling techniques may improve your chance of rescue.

MEANS FOR SIGNALING

19-5. There are two main ways to get attention or to communicate—

visual and audio. The means you use will depend on your situation

and the material you have available. Whatever the means, always

have visual and audio signals ready for use. Throughout this chapter

you will see references to “groups of threes.” This is because nature

does not normally replicate anything in groups of three. “Things in

threes” tend more often to be manmade sounds or visual signals.

VISUAL SIGNALS

19-6. These signals are materials or equipment you use to make

your presence known to rescuers. Visual signals can include fire,

smoke, flares, and many other means of signaling.

Fire

19-7. During darkness, fire is an effective visual means for

signaling. Build three fires in a triangle

(the international

distress signal) or in a straight line with about 25 meters (83 feet)

between the fires. Build them as soon as time and the situation

permit and protect them from the elements until you need them.

If you are alone, maintaining three fires may be difficult. If so,

maintain one signal fire. The hot coal bed left by a fire also may

be seen by aerial platforms that are equipped to detect infrared or

thermal signatures.

19-8. When constructing signal fires, consider your geographic

location. If in a jungle, find a natural clearing or the edge of a

stream where you can build fires that the jungle foliage will not

hide. You may even have to clear an area. If in a snow-covered area,

you may have to clear the ground of snow or make a platform on

which to build the fire so that melting snow will not extinguish it.

19-2

19-9. A burning tree

(tree torch) is another way to attract

attention (Figure 19-1). You can set pitch-bearing trees afire,

even when green. You can get other types of trees to burn by

placing dry wood in the lower branches and igniting it so that the

flames flare up and ignite the foliage. Before the primary tree is

consumed, cut and add more small green trees to the fire to

produce more smoke. Always select an isolated tree so that you do

not start a forest fire and endanger yourself.

Figure 19-1. Tree Torch

Smoke

19-10. During daylight, build a smoke generator and use smoke to

gain attention (Figure 19-2, page 19-4). The international distress

signal is three columns of smoke. Try to create a color of smoke

that contrasts with the background; dark smoke against a light

background and vice versa. If you practically smother a large fire

with green leaves, moss, or a little water, the fire will produce

white smoke. If you add rubber or oil-soaked rags to a fire, you

will get black smoke.

19-11. In a desert environment, smoke hangs close to the ground,

but a pilot can spot it in open desert terrain.

19-3

internationally recognized color of distress, but any color smoke,

if properly used, will attract attention.

Pen Flares

19-14. The M185 signal device is part of an aviator’s survival

vest. The device consists of a pen-shaped gun with a flare

attached by a nylon cord. When fired, the pen flare sounds like a

pistol shot and fires the flare about 150 meters (495 feet) high. It

is about 3 centimeters (1 inch) in diameter.

19-15. To have the pen flare ready for immediate use, take it out

of its wrapper, partially screw on the flare, leave the gun

uncocked, and drape the cord around your neck. Be ready to fire it

well in front of search aircraft in a nonthreatening direction and

be ready with a secondary signal. Also, be ready to take cover in

case the pilot mistakes the flare for enemy fire. It is important to

note that pen flares may deflect off tree limbs and tree canopies.

This may cause the flare to deflect or shoot back to the ground,

causing a forest fire hazard. Ensure you have proper overhead

clearance and an obstacle-free path to shoot through.

Gyro-Jets

19-16. These devices are the newer version of the pen flare.

They differ in that they are jet-powered rather than ballistic like

the pen flares. They will reach a height of up to 300 meters (990

feet). To prepare them for firing, the flares are pushed until

firmly seated into a crimped collar rather than a threaded screw-

on type assembly. They are designed to better penetrate tree

canopies, but do not rely on this to always happen. Always ensure

you have a clear path in which to aim and fire all overhead

pyrotechnics. Again, groups of threes are internationally

recognized symbols of distress.

Tracer Ammunition

19-17. You may use rifle or pistol tracer ammunition to signal

search aircraft. Do not fire the ammunition in front of the

aircraft. As with pen flares, be ready to take cover if the pilot

mistakes your tracers for enemy fire. Again, groups of threes are

internationally recognized symbols of distress.

19-5

Star Clusters

19-18. Red is the international distress color; therefore, use a red

star cluster whenever possible. However, any color will let your

rescuers know where you are. Star clusters reach a height of 200

215 meters (660 to 710 feet), burn an average of 6 to 10

seconds, and descend at a rate of 14 meters (46 feet) per second.

Star Parachute Flares

19-19. These flares reach a height of 200 to 215 meters (660 to

710 feet) and descend at a rate of 2.1 meters (7 feet) per second.

The M126 (red) burns about 50 seconds and the M127 (white)

about 25 seconds. At night you can see these flares at 48 to 56

kilometers (30 to 34 miles).

MK-13 and MK-124

19-20. These signals are normally found on aircraft and lift rafts.

They produce an orange smoke on one end for day signaling and a

flare on the other end for nighttime use. The smoke lasts for

approximately 15 seconds and the flare lasts 20 to 25 seconds.

Though the signal is designed for use on a life raft, they do not

float. They are designed to be handheld, but hold the device by

the far end that is not being used to prevent burns. Note that

after expending either signal the other end is still available for

use, so do not discard it until both ends have been used. There are

numerous redundant markings on each side of the flare to ensure

that you activate the correct signal, day or night. The end caps

are colored, raised protrusions or nipples are present, and a

washer is on the pull ring to differentiate night and day.

Mirrors or Shiny Objects

19-21. On a sunny day, a mirror is your best signaling device.

If you don’t have a mirror, polish your canteen cup, your belt

buckle, or a similar object that will reflect the sun’s rays. Direct the

flashes in one area so that they are secure from enemy observation.

Practice using a mirror or shiny object for signaling now; do not

wait until you need it. If you have an MK-3 signal mirror, follow

the instructions on its back (Figure 19-3, page 19-7). An alternate,

easier method of aiming the signal mirror is to catch the reflection

on the palm of your hand or in between two fingers held up in a “V”

or “peace sign.” Now slowly move your hand so that it is just below

19-6

your aim point or until the aircraft is between the “V” in your

fingers, keeping the glare on your palm. Then move the mirror

slowly and rhythmically up and down off your hand and onto the

aim point as in Figures 19-4 and 19-5, page 19-8.

Figure 19-3. MK-3 Signal Mirror

19-22. Wear the signal mirror on a cord or chain around your

neck so that it is ready for immediate use. However, be sure the

glass side is against your body so that it will not flash; the enemy

can see the flash.

19-7

Figure 19-4. Aiming an Improvised Signal Mirror

CAUTION

Do not flash a signal mirror rapidly because a pilot may

mistake the flashes for enemy fire. Do not direct the

beam in the aircraft’s cockpit for more than a few

seconds as it may blind the pilot.

19-23. Haze, ground fog, and mirages may make it hard for a pilot

to spot signals from a flashing object. So, if possible, get to the

highest point in your area when signaling. If you can’t determine

the aircraft’s location, flash your signal in the direction of the

aircraft noise.

Figure 19-5. Aiming an Improvised Signal Mirror

Using a Stationary Object

19-8

NOTE: Pilots have reported seeing mirror flashes up to 160

kilometers (96 miles) away under ideal conditions.

Flashlight or Strobe Light

19-24. At night you can use a flashlight or a strobe light to send

an SOS to an aircraft. When using a strobe light, take care to

prevent the pilot from mistaking it for incoming ground fire. The

strobe light flashes 60 times per minute. Some strobe lights have

infrared covers and lenses. Blue flash collimators are also

available for strobe lights that aid in distinguishing the flashing

of the strobe light from a muzzle flash, and also make the strobe

light directional.

Laser Devices

19-25. Laser aiming devices on weapons systems are highly

visible. So are targeting pointers and many commercial types of

laser presentation pointers.

Firefly Lights

19-26. These small lights, about 3 centimeters (1 1/4 inches) square

and 1 centimeter (1/8 inch) thick, snap onto 9-volt batteries. They

are available in a variety of visible and infrared, blinking and

steady light versions. The visible range and battery duration will

depend on the intensity of the bulb and the mode each light uses.

Other models incorporate a 4-second programmable memory that

allows users to input any particular code they wish.

VS-17 Panel

19-27. During daylight you can use a VS-17 panel to signal. Place

the orange side up as it is easier to see from the air than the

violet side. Flashing the panel will make it easier for the aircrew

to spot. You can use any bright orange or violet cloth as a

substitute for the VS-17.

Clothing

19-28. Spreading clothing on the ground or in the top of a tree is

another way to signal. Select articles whose color will contrast

with the natural surroundings. Arrange them in a large geometric

pattern to make them more likely to attract attention.

19-9

Natural Material

19-29. If you lack other means, you can use natural materials to

form a symbol or message that can be seen from the air. Build

mounds that cast shadows; you can use brush, foliage of any type,

rocks, or snow blocks.

19-30. In snow-covered areas, tramp the snow to form letters or

symbols and fill the depression with contrasting material (twigs

or branches). In sand, use boulders, vegetation, or seaweed to

form a symbol or message. In brush-covered areas, cut out

patterns in the vegetation or sear the ground. In tundra, dig

trenches or turn the sod upside down.

19-31. In any terrain, use contrasting materials that will make

the symbols visible to the aircrews. Orient the signal in a north-

south fashion to attain the maximum benefit of the sun’s shadow

for contrast and recognition.

Sea Dye Markers

19-32. All aircraft involved in operations near or over water will

normally carry a water survival kit that contains sea dye

markers. If you are in a water survival situation, use sea dye

markers during daylight to indicate your location. These spots of

dye stay conspicuous for about 3 hours, except in very rough seas.

Use them only if you are in a friendly area. Keep the markers

wrapped until you are ready to use them. The sea dye is visible at

a distance of more than 11 kilometers (7 miles) from an aircraft at

2,000 feet, so you should use them only when you hear or sight an

aircraft. To further conserve them do not use them all at once.

Dip the marker bag in the water until a slick about 30 meters

(100 feet) appears. Sea dye markers are also very effective on

snow-covered ground; use them to write distress code letters.

NOTE: Rumors have persisted about how sea dye attracts

sharks. The U.S. Navy has conducted research, and no scientific

data has been found to support this rumor. Sharks are naturally

curious and are drawn to strange objects in their area. Therefore,

a shark may investigate a person, with or without sea dye, as a

possible food source. Do not be afraid to use sea dye markers; it

may be your last or only chance to signal a rescue aircraft.

19-10

AUDIO SIGNALS

19-33. Your other means of signaling a rescuer can be audio

signals. Radios, whistles, and gunshots are some of the methods

you can use to signal your location.

Radio Equipment

19-34. The AN/PRC-90 survival radio is a part of the Army

aviator’s survival vest. The AN/PRC-112 will eventually replace

the AN/PRC-90. Both radios can transmit either tone or voice.

Any other type of Army radio can do the same. The ranges of the

different radios vary depending on the altitude of the receiving

aircraft, terrain, vegetation density, weather, battery strength,

type of radio, and interference. To obtain maximum performance

from radios, use the following procedures:

•

Try to transmit only in clear, unobstructed terrain. Since

radios are line-of-sight communications devices, any

terrain between the radio and the receiver will block the

signal.

•

Keep the antenna at right angles to the rescuing aircraft.

There is little or no signal strength emanating from the tip

of the antenna.

•

If the radio has tone capability, place it upright on a flat,

elevated surface so that you can perform other survival

tasks.

•

Never let any part of the antenna or its mounting lug

touch your clothing, body, foliage, or the ground. Such

contact greatly reduces the range of the signal.

•

Conserve battery power. Turn the radio off when you are

not using it. Do not transmit or receive constantly. In

hostile territory, keep transmissions short to avoid enemy

radio direction finding.

•

In cold weather, keep the battery inside your clothing

when not using the radio. Cold quickly drains the battery’s

power. Do not expose the battery to extreme heat such as

desert sun. High heat may cause the battery to explode.

The radio is designed to be waterproof, but always try to

keep the radio and battery as dry as possible, as water

may destroy the circuitry.

19-11

• A worldwide satellite monitoring system has been

developed by international search and rescue agencies to

assist in locating survivors. To activate this search and

rescue satellite-aided tracking

(SARSAT) system in

peacetime, key the transmitter for a minimum of

30 seconds.

Whistles

19-35. Whistles provide an excellent way for close-up signaling. In

some documented cases, they have been heard up to

1.6

kilometers (3/4 mile) away. Manufactured whistles have more

range than a human whistle.

Gunshots

19-36. In some situations you can use firearms for signaling.

Three shots fired at distinct intervals usually indicate a distress

signal. Do not use this technique in enemy territory. The enemy

will surely come to investigate shots.

CODES AND SIGNALS

19-37. Now that you know how to let people know where you are,

you need to know how to give them more information. It is easier

to form one symbol than to spell out an entire message. Therefore,

learn the codes and symbols that all aircraft pilots understand.

SOS

19-38. You can use lights or flags to send an SOS—three dots,

three dashes, three dots. The SOS is the internationally

recognized distress signal in radio Morse code. A dot is a short,

sharp pulse; a dash is a longer pulse. Keep repeating the signal.

When using flags, hold flags on the left side for dashes and on the

right side for dots.

19-12

GROUND-TO-AIR EMERGENCY CODE

19-39. This code (Figure 19-6) is actually five definite, meaningful

symbols. Make these symbols a minimum of 4 meters (13 feet)

wide and 6 meters (20 feet) long. If you make them larger, keep

the same 2:3 ratio. The signal arms or legs should be 1 meter (3

feet) wide and 1 meter (3 feet) high to ensure maximum visibility

from high altitudes. Ensure the signal contrasts greatly with the

ground it is on. The signal may be constructed from any available

materials; for example, aircraft parts, logs, or leaves. Remember

size, ratio, angularity, straight lines, and square corners are not

found in nature. You must consider how the signal will contrast

with the natural background. The signal may be made by

breaking and bending over crops or tall grass in a field or

trampled down into snow or sandy soil. Place it in an open area

easily spotted from the air. If evading, the signal could also be

dug into the ground to reduce its signature from ground forces.

Number

Message

Code Symbol

Require assistance.

Require medical assistance.

No or negative.

Yes or affirmative.

Proceed in this direction.

Figure 19-6. Ground-to-Air Emergency Code (Pattern Signals)

19-13

FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002) - page 11